فیلم‌های پرطرفدار ایرانی

به نظر شما بهترین فیلم ایرانی که می‌توان برای دیدن به کسی پیشنهاد کرد چیست و چه کارگردانی را به بقیه ترجیح می‌دهید؟
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تختی

برای کسب اطلاعات بیشتر به سایت آلابولا مراجعه کنید:

بدون شک سایت آلابولا بهترین سایتی هست که تا حالا دیدم. در این سایت مطالب متنوع علمی, تفریحی, آموزشی بصورت آورده شده است که دیدن آن را به همه توصیه می کنم.

سایت آلابولا:        www.alaboola.com

 

 

 

امثال و حکم ; ٧:۳٠ ‎ب.ظ ; چهارشنبه ٦ آذر ۱۳۸٧

چگونه زبان انگلیسی را به سرعت بیاموزیم

به نظر من بهترین راه برای آموختن زبان انگلیسی استفاده از رمانهای انگلیسی است که در کنار ترجمه فارسی آن خوانده شود. در این روش شما ابتدا رمان فارسی با می‌خوانید بعد از آن متن انگلیسی را مطالعه می‌کنید و هر جا که به مشکلی برخوردید از کتاب فارسی استفاده می‌کنید. برای موفق شدن در این روش استفاده از کتابی که ترجمه روان و مناسبی داشته باشد بسیار مناسب است
من شخصا کتاب باد بادک باز رو را با این روش مطالعه کردم که خیلی مناسب بود. کتاب اصلی آن هم موجود است که با عنوان The Kite Runner وجود داشته و قابل دانلود کردن است.
موفق باشید.

 

برای کسب اطلاعات بیشتر به سایت آلابولا مراجعه کنید:

بدون شک سایت آلابولا بهترین سایتی هست که تا حالا دیدم. در این سایت مطالب متنوع علمی, تفریحی, آموزشی بصورت آورده شده است که دیدن آن را به همه توصیه می کنم.

سایت آلابولا:        www.alaboola.com

 

امثال و حکم ; ٧:۱٩ ‎ب.ظ ; چهارشنبه ٦ آذر ۱۳۸٧

یادش بخیر قدیما

زمان بچگی ما کارتونهای بسیار جذابی از تلوزیون پخش می‌شد که حتی نام آنها هم آدم رو مشعوف می‌کنه!!

بعضی از این کارتونها ای این قرارن
تام و جری
پلنگ صورتی
بامزی قویترین خرس دنیا
آنشرلی که بیشتر دخترانه است
جودی ابوت و بابا لنگ دراز
پت و مت
بن و سپاستین
بچه‌های کوه آلپ
للک و ولک

 

برای کسب اطلاعات بیشتر به سایت آلابولا مراجعه کنید:

بدون شک سایت آلابولا بهترین سایتی هست که تا حالا دیدم. در این سایت مطالب متنوع علمی, تفریحی, آموزشی بصورت آورده شده است که دیدن آن را به همه توصیه می کنم.

سایت آلابولا:        www.alaboola.com

 

امثال و حکم ; ٥:٢٧ ‎ب.ظ ; چهارشنبه ٦ آذر ۱۳۸٧

خردل

آورده اند که در کنفرانس تهران روزی چرچیل، روزولت و استالین بعد از


میتینگ‌های پی در پی آن روز تاریخی! برای خوردن شام با هم نشسته

بودند. در کنار میز یکی از سگ‌های چرچیل ساکت نشسته بود و به آنها

نگاه میکرد، چرچیل خطاب به همرهانش گفت؛ چطوری میشه از این خردل
تند به این سگ داد؟ روزولت گفت من بلدم و مقداری گوشت برید و خردل
را داخل گوشت مالید و به طرف سگ رفت و گوشت را جلوی دهانش
گرفته و شروع به نوچ نوچ کرد، سگ گوشت را بو کرد و شروع به خوردن
کرد تا اینکه به خردل رسید، خردل دهان سگ را سوزاند و از خوردن صرف
نظر کرد.
بعد نوبت به استالین رسید. استالین گفت هیچ کاری با زبون خوش پیش نمیره
و مقداری از خردل را با انگشتهایش گرفته و به طرف سگ بیچاره رفته و با
یک دستش گردن سگ را محکم گرفته و با دست دیگرش خردل را به
زور به
داخل دهان سگ چپاند، سگ با ضرب زور خودش را از دست استالین رهانید
و خردل را تف کرد.
در این میانه چرچیل به هر دوی آنها میخندید بلند شد و گفت؛ دوستان هر
دوتاتون سخت در اشتباهید! شما باید کاری بکنید که خودش مجبور بشه
بخوره، روزولت گفت چطوری؟ چرچیل گفت نگاه کنید! و بعد بلند شد و با
چهار انگشتش مقداری از خردل را به مقعد سگ مالید، سگ زوزه کشان در
حالی‌ که به خودش میپیچید شروع به لیسیدن خردل کرد! چرچیل گفت دیدید


چطوری میتوان زور را بدون زور زدن بمردمان اعمال کرد

 

برای کسب اطلاعات بیشتر به سایت آلابولا مراجعه کنید:

بدون شک سایت آلابولا بهترین سایتی هست که تا حالا دیدم. در این سایت مطالب متنوع علمی, تفریحی, آموزشی بصورت آورده شده است که دیدن آن را به همه توصیه می کنم.

سایت آلابولا:        www.alaboola.com

 

امثال و حکم ; ۱:٢۳ ‎ب.ظ ; سه‌شنبه ٥ آذر ۱۳۸٧

بررسی پیرامون پیدایش و ظهور شیعه‏و بیان و نقد و آراء مخالفین ‏

بررسی پیرامون پیدایش و ظهور شیعه‏و بیان و نقد و آراء مخالفین ‏
شیعه شناسی ( فرقه های شیعی)

بررسی پیرامون پیدایش و ظهور شیعه‏و بیان و نقد و آراء مخالفین ‏


صرف نظر از مبدا و زمان تکوین و پیدایش که در این مقاله به تفصیل به آن خواهیم پرداخت، ذکر این نکته ضروری می‏نماید که که شیعه به پیروی از رهبر خود امام علی علیه السلام و در پرتو رهنمودهایش و به موازات حفظ اصول عقیدتی خود همواره مدافع کلیت اسلامی و وحدت صفوف اسلامی و آرمانهای اصیل اسلامی بوده است. امام علی (ع) خود به خاطر مصلحت اسلامی و با توجه به شرایط عینی جامعه آن روز که بقای اساس در درجه اول اهمیت قرار داشت نه تنها برای احقاق حق خود به نبردی برنخاست بلکه برای بیعت نکردن نیز دست به شمشیر نبرد تا دشمنان دیرینه اسلام نقطه ضعفی در جامعه نو بنیاد اسلامی نباید و در انهدام ارکان رسالت نکوشد. او از مرگ بیم نداشت و همواره در آرزوی شهادت بود ولی به این اصل رسیده بود که مصلحت اسلام در آن شرایط ترک قیام و بلکه همگامی و همکاری بود. حضرت در نامه‏ای خطاب به مالک اشتر به این نکته تصریح دارد.(1) سیره و مرام با پیشوایان ما نیز همین بوده است که همواره مصالح عالمیه مسلمین و جوامع اسلامی را بر هر چیز دیگری ترجیح می‏دارند. در زمان کنونی نیز دشمنان و مخالفان آرام ننشسته‏اند و به فحاشی و ناسزاگویی برخاسته‏اند و در کتب و مجلات خود باز می‏کوشند که یاوه‏های اسرائیلی و افسانه‏های واهی «ابن سبایی» را نشر سازند. مسلما وظیفه یک شیعه راستین در این شرایط مقابله به مثل و ناسزاگویی نیست و در شأن آنها نیست که چنان باشند. تردیدی نیست که غرض ورزیهای اشخاصی همچون ابن تیمیمه، احمد امین مصری، موسی جارا و عبد الله بن باز باعث شده است تا گروهی عوام، شیعه را افرادی مشرک و غالی و خطناک بپندارند و در نتیجه شکاف بین صفوف مسلمین را عمیقتر کنند اما با این وجود ما باید تلاش کنیم تا یک کار اساسی و علمی و تحقیقی ارائه کرده و شیعه و تشیع را به جهان معرفی کنیم. این اساسی‏ترین راهی است که ما می‏توانیم در برنامه‏های خود در نظر داشته باشیم، در این راه بکوشیم و از هیچ تهمت و فترایی نهراسیم اگر شیع راستین علی (ع) هستیم!

هر ملتی که به نوشتن تاریخ و گذشته خویش کم و بیش اهمیت می‏دهد و شیعه نیز از این امر مستثنی نیست. در این نوشته مختصر بنده به دنبال اثبات این حقیقت هستیم که شیعه و تشیع از روزهای نخستین طلوع اسلام وجود داشته و به ما رسیده است و ریشه در عبدالله بن سبا و ایرانیان و... ندارد.

و این حقیقت فقط از بعد تاریخی مطرح و مورد بررسی قرار می‏گیرد. قبل از اختتام این مقدمه توجه خوانندگان ارجمند را به نکاتی چند جلب مینماییم.

الف - شکی نیست که تاریخ صحیح تاریخی است که حوادث و وقایع گذشته را به بهترین وجه و بدون کمترین دخل و تصرفی بیان نماید. متأسفانه «تاریخ اسلام» که در دوره خلفاء اموی و عباسی نوشته شده است مزیت فوق را دارا نیست، زیرا تاریخ نویسان بی طرف نبوده و تحت تأثیر حکومتهای وقت قرار می‏گرفته‏اند. این قبیل مورخین به منظور اغراض و هواهای خاصی تاریخ اسلام را با خرافات و احادیث مجعول نموده و آنچه توانسته‏اند نسبت به مکتب تشیع بی مهری او را داشته‏اند. فقط از باب نمونه به مواردی ذیلا اشاره می‏گردد:

1- محمد بن جریری طبری، بزرگترین مورخ اهل سنت، حدیث یوم الانذار» را به طور کامل نقل می‏نماید ولی هنگامی که به جملات حساس می‏رسد دستخوش هوی و هوس گشته و جمله «هذا علی و وصیی و خلیفتی فیکم من بعدی ناسمعوا له و اطیعوا» را به صورت ابتر نقل کرده و به ذکر «گذا و کذا» اکتفا می‏نماید.(2)ابن کثیر شافی نیز همین کوتاهی را مرتکب شده است.(3)

2- ابن تیمیه در «مهناج السنه»، ابن خرم در «الفصل فی العمل و النحل» و شهرستانی در الملل و النحل آنگاه که به شیعه و تشیع می‏رسند از وارد کردن هر گونه تهامی خودداری نموده و تاریخ اسلام را دگرگون نشان می‏دند.

3- ابن عبدر به مالکی در «العقد الفرید» و احمد امین در کتابهای «فجر السلام» و «ضحی الاسلام» و.. خویش نیز از هیچ ونه تهمتی نسبت به شیعه فروگذار نکرده‏اند.

ب- برخی از پژوهشگران در تقسیم بندی جامعه اسلامی به دو گروه شیعه و سنی چنین مشی کرده‏اند که در بدو این امر اهل سنت بوده است که اصل ساس جامعه اسلامی را تشکیل می‏داده‏اند و بر طبق قاعده بوده‏اند و سپس گروهی به نام شیعه به وجود آمده و استثنایی بر این اصل شده‏اند و این به دلیل این است که امروز اکثریت مسلمانان به مکتب اهل سنت وابسته‏اند و اقلیتی پیرو مکتب شیعه‏اند!! آنچه که البته از چشم این قبیل پژوهشگران بدور مانده است این حقیقت است که تقسیم دو نحله فکری بر اساس تعداد پیروان آن امری کاملا غیر منطقی است. چه بسیار تقسیم بندی‏های فکری وجود دارند که خود در داخل یک مکتب فکری می‏گنجد. بنابراین کمی و رزیادی پیروان یک مکتب نباید سبب ین گردد که ما یکی را اصل و دیگری را فرع قلمداد کنیم.

ج- برای پیدا کردن مبدأ پیدایش تشیع و زمان ولادت آن نباید اشتباها بر پنال زمان به وجود آمدن این اصطلاح و اطلاق آن بر گروهی خاص باشیم که این خود یک نکته انحرافی است چرا که پیدایش الفاظ و عبارات و اصطلاحات امری است و وجود محتوی و جهت‏گیری‏های فکری نکته دیگر. بنابراین اگر در زمان حیات شخص پیامبر (ص) به طور مشخص به گروهی بنام شیعه و فرقه‏ای بنام تشیع بر نمی‏خوریم و به طور مشخص بر بعد از وفات آن حضرت شاهد این تعابیر هستیم، نباید تصور کنیم که پس مکتب تشیع زائیده آن زمان بوده است و در زمان رسول خداست ص) هیچ اثری از شیعه نبوده است.

د- آقای دکتر عبدالله فیاض در کتابوده است تاریخ الامامیه و اسلام فهم من الشیعه» تشیع سیاسی را تشیع مذهبی جدا کرده و برای دوحی قدمت و سابقه زمانی بیشتری قائل گردیده است. این گونه تفکیک صحیح به نظر نمی‏رسد. در سراسر تاریخ انسانی مذهب به نحو نزدیکی در کل زندگی انسان دخالت داشته است.

همانطور که پیامبر (ص) اساس یک معلم روحانی و مذهبی بود به همان گونه نیز فرماندهی با قدرت و سیاستمدار مناسب با زمان خود بود. اسلام نیز از همان ابتدای تکوین دارای نظام مذهبی، اجتماعی و سیاسی بود. به همین ترتیب تشیع در طبیعت ذاتیش همیشه هم مذهبی و هم سیاسی بوده است و چنین جنبه‏های دو گانه در سراسر تاریخ تشیع وجود دارند. از این رو مشکل به نظر می‏رسد که در هر مرحله‏ای از تکوین درباره تشیع سیاسی مذهبی سخن گفت.

بخش اول‏

-معنی لغوی و اصطلاحی شیعه‏

شیعه از نظر لغت به معنی یاران و پیروان و انصار است. این لفظ به همین صورت بر مذکر و ونث، مفرد و جمع اطلاق می‏گردد.

از نظر اصطلاحی این واژه به فرد با افرادی اطلاق می‏گردد که دوستدار علی (ع) و فرزندانش باشند و به امامت آنها اعتقاد داشته باشند. تا آنجا که اگر واژه شیعه بدون قید و شرط به کار برده شود و قرینه‏ای در کار نباشد اذهان به معنای فوق منصرف خواهند شد.

اینک به منظور اثبات آنچه ذکر شد به مواردی استشهاد می‏گردد:

1- ابن خلدون چنین می‏نویسد «شیعه از لحاظ لغوی به معنی یاران پیروان است و در اصطلاح فقها بر پیروان علی و فرزندانش اطلاق می‏گردد.(4)

2- در موارد ذیل شیعه به معنای لغوی خود یعنی یاران و پیروان اطلاق گردیده است .

الف) «ان احسان بن مالک فی محاد؟؟ مع زمیل له قال و انا اشهد لئن کان دین یزید بن معاویه... انه الیوم و شیعته علی حق»(5)

ب) «و من انخاز الهیم من اهل خراسان من شیعة بنی امیه»(6)

3- در مواردی ذیل شیعه در معنی اصطلاحی خود بکار رفته است:

الف) «ان الامام علیا اقام و من معه من شیعة فی منزله بعد ان تمت البیعه لابی بکر»(7)

ب) «وانما قیل لهم الشیعه لانهم شایعوا علیا؟؟ و تقدمونه علی سائر اصحاب رسول الله (ص)»(8)

ج) «ان الشیعه هم الذین شایعوا علیا علی الخصوص و قالوا بامامته و خلافته نصا و وصیتا، اما جلیا او خفیا...»(9)

د) «و من افق الشیعه فی ان علیا افضل الناس بعد رسول الله (ص) و احقهم بالامامه و ولده من بعده فهو شیعی و ان خالفهم فیما عدا ذلک فما اختلف فیه المسلمون فان خالفهم فیما ذکرنا فلیس شیعیا»(10)

این تعریف ابن خرم که جامعترین تعاریف است از این جهت نیز حائز اهمیت است که وی اعتراف کرده است که اساس و جوهره تشیع در این است که علی (ع) را بعد از پیامبر (ص) افضل مردم دانسته و امامت در فرزندان او میداند. لذا فرقه هایی از قبیل زیدیه و غلا که افضلیت حضرتش را منکر شده و یا قائل به الوهیت وی گردیده‏اند از تحت این تعریف خارج شده و حسابی جداگانه دارند.

بخش دوم‏

زمان ظهور و پیدایش شیعه چه زمانی بوده است؟

این همان سوال مهمی است که این مقاله هر چند مختصر پاسخ به آن را متکفل است. و اساس بحث نیز در همین پاسخ نهفته است. پاسخ به این سوال در واقع بر می‏گردد به نظریات و اقوال مختلفی که در این رابطه وجود دارد. ما مهمترین این اقوال را در قالب چند فصل ارائه می‏دهیم.

«فصل اول»

نظریه اول در این رابطه همان نظر اکثر و بلکه قریب به اتفاق امامیه است. طبق این نظریه، شیعه لفظی است که خود پیامبر اسلام (ص) بر پیروان و علی (ع) اطلاق نموده است. اختصاص این لفظ به مکتب تشیع طبق نظر بنیانگذار آن انجام پذیرفته است. درختی است که به دست خود حضرت غرس شده و به دست خود وی هم آبیاری شده است تا به ثمر رسیده و در همان عمر بارور گردید.

شاید تصور شود که آنگاه که دوستداران اهل بیت (ع) او به فزونی نهادند و در سرزمینهای مختلف پراکندند این عنوان بدآنهامنسوب گشت تا از سایرین ممتاز شوند. لکن این تصور درست نیست زیرا اگر در احادیث نبوی به جستجو بپردازیم باز می‏یابیم که اختصاص این عنوان به دوستداران اهل بیت (ع) همراه با همان روزی که اسلام طلوع کرد دارای سابقه می‏باشد. مکتب تشیع با آمدن «اسلام» آغاز و انتشار یافت. پیامبر اسلام (ص) همان روزی که مردم را به سوی اسلام دعوت کرد همان روز نیز رهبر و پیشوای مکتب تشیع یعنی علی (ع) را به مردم معرفی کرد و صریحا دستور داد از حضرتش پیروی نمایند.

این روز را می‏توان روز دعوت به تشیع و یا ظهور شیع نامید. حدیث «یوم الانذار» بهترین شاهد و گواه این سخن است. در این امر حدیث حضرت رسول (ص) می‏فرمایند: «ایکم یوازر فی لیکول افی و وارثی و وزیری و وصیی فیکم من بعدی؟

هیچ کس بجز علی (ع) پاسخ مثبت نداد. آنگاه حضرت فرمود: «هذا افی و وارثی و وزیری و وصیی و خلیفتی فیکم بعدی فاسمعواله و اطیعوا»(11)

این حدیث از احادیث مسلمی است که اغلب مفسران شیعه و سنی در ذیل آیه شریفه «و انذر عشیرتک الاقربین» شعرا214/ نقل کرده‏اند.

آخرین اقدامی که به منظور تحکیم اساس و پایه مکتب تشیع انجام گرفت، موضوع غدیر خم بود که رسول اکرم (ص) از آن گروه بیشمار برای علی (ع) بیعت گرفت. روز غدیر را می‏توان روز انتشار تشیع نامید.

«حدیث غدیر» از احادیث متواتر و قطعی و مسلم بین شیعه و سنی است و متجاوز از صد نفر صحابی با سندها و عبارتهای مختلف آن را نقل نموده‏اند.

برای تفصیل بیشتر به کتب الغدیر مرحوم امینی، عبقات مرحوم میر حامد حسین جلدغریر، غمایة الحرام و... مراجعه شود.

جدای از این دو مورد مهم در تاریخ زندگانی پیامبر اکرم (ص) موارد دیگر نیز ذکر می‏گردد:

1- ابن حجر عسقلانی در الصواعق از طبرانی از علی (ع) نقل می‏کند که فرمود: «ان خلیلی رسول الله (ص) قال: یا علی انک ستقدم علی الله وسیعتک راضیین مرضیین و یقدم علیه عدوک غضابی محمد حین»

و نیز ابن حجر می‏گوید: حافظ جمال الدین زرندی از ابن عباس آورده است که وقتی آیه زیر نازل شد: «ان الذین آمنوا و عملو الصالحات اولئک هم خیر البریه» پیامبر (ص) به علی (ع) فرمود: «هو انت و شیعتک تأتی انت و شیعتک یوم القیامه راضیین مرضیین و یأتی عدوک غضابی ممحین»

2- نو بختی در فرق الشیعه نقل می‏کند «ان اول الفرق الشیعه و هم فرقة علی ابن ابیطالب (ع) شیعة علی (ع) فی زمان النبی (ص) و بعده معروفون بأنقطاعهم الیه و القول بأمامته»(12)

به هر حال اینها و بسیاری از احادیث و دلایل دیگر همه گویای این واقعیت هستند که تشیع زائیده فرمان خود حضرت رسول (ص) می‏باشد اگر چه دارای تشکل و انسجامی خاص نبوده‏اند.

فصل دوم‏

نظریه دوم ظهور شیعه را روز سقیفه و همزمان با رحلت پیامبر (ص) می‏داند.

البته همانگونه که در فصل اول گفته شد درست نیست که منشأ پیدایش تشیع را زمان رحلت حضرت رسول (ص) بدانیم. طبری و یعقوبی و امثال آنها که این نظریه را داده‏اند به این استدلال می‏کنند که در آن روز گروهی صریحا اعلام داشتند. که علی (ع) بر سایرین مقدم است و از زبیر نقل شده است که «اخترط سیفه و قال «اغهد حتی یبایع علی»(13)

اما از سوی دیگر می‏توان گفت که واقعه سقیفه با ظهور تشیع مرتبط است. سقیفه را باید به عنوان نامی عمومی برای اولین جدائی یک اقلیت از یک اکثریت در نظر گرفت. روز سقیفه را باید روز علنی شدن تشیع قلمداد نمود.

آنان عجولانه و بدون مشورت با همه مسلمانان و در حالیکه هنوز جسد پیامبر (ص) دفن نشده بود، گرد هم آمده و سقیفه را آفریدند، علی و یارانش را در برابر عمل انجام شده قرار دادند، مورد انتقاد حضرت و یارانش همچون سلمان، ابوذر، مقداد، عمار، زبیر و... قرار گرفتند. این انتقاد بود که اقلیتی را از اکثریتی ح=جدا کرد و پیروان علی (ع) را به همین نام شیعه علی (ع) به جامعه شناسانید. بنابراین پر واضح است که چنین کسانی که در آن روز گرد شمع وجود علی (ع) آمدند نمی‏توانند بالبراهة و یک شبه به وجود آمده باشند. بلکه اینان در زمان حیات رسول خداست ص) از محبین و دوستداران علی (ع) بشمار می‏آمدند.

فصل سوم‏

این نظریه که کاملا در نقطه مقابل نظر اول قرار دارد و بیان کننده عمق خصومت دشمنان نسبت به مکتب اهل بیت (ع) می‏باشد این تمت مشهودی است که «مذهب تشیع مولود انکار ابن سبای یهودی است» اینان معتقدند که عبدالله بن سبا که اهل یمن بوده و ابتدا یهودی بوده و سپس اسلام آورده است، در نطقها و مواعظش افکار و اصول عقاید یهود را با اصول و مقررات اسلامی در هم آمیخت.

افسانه عبدالله بن سبا کم و بیش در بسیاری از کتب تاریخ نقل و به آن پرداخته شده است. اما آنچه که تحقیقات در طول قرون متمادی نشان می‏دهد این است که قصد ابن سبا و سبائید افسانه‏ای بیش نیست که دشمنان شیعه آن را ساخته و پرداخته‏اند.

جالب این جا است که در هیچ یک از کتب و مصادر اصلی که داستان شورش علیه عثمان در آنها ضبط است نامی از ابن سبا در میان نیست نه ابن سعد و نه بلاذری و نه ابن اسحاق نامی از وی به میان نیاورده‏اند و فقط طبری است که این حکایت را از سیف بن عمر نقل کرده و مورخین پس از وی همه از او روایت می‏کنند.

علامه بزرگوار سید مرتضی عسکری که در این رابطه تحقیق کامل و جامعی را انجام داده و آن را در کتابی به همین نام به چاپ رسانده‏اند، با دلائل تاریخی اثبات می‏نماید که منشأ این داستان موهوم همان روایتی است که طبری نقل می‏کند.

همینطور استاد عبدالله السبیتی در کتاب الی مشیخة الازهر و مرحوم کاشف الغطاء در «اصل الشیعه و اصولها» به طور مفصل این داستان موهوم را مورد بررسی و تحقق قرار داده‏اند فراجع‏

به هر حال عبدالله بن سبا خواه وجود خارجی داشته و یا نداشته باشد که حق هم همین است، بایستی با صراحت تمام اعلام داشت که شیعه و تشیع از افکار ضد اسلامی منسوب به او کاملا بیزار است. مرحوم کاشف الغطاء می‏نویسد «عبدالله بن سبا غالی ملعونی است و حضرت علی (ع) او را در آتش سوزانید»(14)

ابن خلدون در مقدمه خود به نقل از الفرق بین الفرق، ملل و نحل و عقد الفرید می‏نویسد«علی (ع) کسانی را که درباره او غلو می‏کردند سوزانید و گروهی را تبعید نمود که از آن جمله عبدالله بن سبا بود»(15)

شیعه در کتب خود غلات را نجس و خارج از دین معرفی می‏کند. مرحوم شیخ مفید که از بزرگترین علمای شیعه به شمار می‏رود در کتاب خویش می‏نویسد «غلات از متظاهرین به اسلام آنهایی هستند که به امیرالمؤمنین و ائمه اطهار نسبت الوهیت داده... ائمه (ع) حکم کفر و خروج از اسلام آنها را صادر کردند»(16).

در اینجا نظریات و بعضا اتهاماتی دیگر به شیدایش و تکون تشیع وجود دارد از قبیل اینکه جمال مبدأ پیدایش شیعه بوده است و یا مولود ایرانیان و آل بویه و صفویه و... می‏باشد و... که بحث و بررسی پیرامون هر یک از این نظریات فرصت خاص دیگری را می‏طلبد ولی اجمالا باید توجه داد که چنانچه در فصل اول اشاره گردید، امامت ادامه راه نبوت و تفکیک‏ناپذیر از یکدیگرند به همان گونه تشیع نیز همزمان با دعوت رسالت آغاز گردید منتهی در بستر تاریخ تشیع دارای سیر و صعود و نزولهایی بوده است و در برخی از منه و امنکه گسترش یافته و فراگیر شده است و بالعکس. در پایان آرزو می‏کنم این تلاش اندک مفید و راهگشای برادران و خواهران دینی قرار گیرد.

والسلام‏


مرجع: http://www.porsojoo.com/fa/node/84788

 

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امثال و حکم ; ۱٠:۳٥ ‎ق.ظ ; سه‌شنبه ٥ آذر ۱۳۸٧

پیدایش منظومه شمسی

تاکنون نظریات زیادی در مورد منشا منظومه شمسی و زمین ارائه شده است، در میان آنها ، دو نظر اساسی وجود دارد. اولی فرضیه برخورد نزدیک نام گرفته است. بر این پایه است که سیاره‌ها ، از مواد جدا شده از خورشید ، تشکیل شده‌اند. بر طبق آن ، کشش گرانشی یک ستاره یا دنباله‌دار به حدی بوده است که هنگام عبور از کنار خورشید مقداری از ماده آن را بیرون کشیده است. زمین ما عضوی از خانواده خورشید است.
منظومه شمسی نه سیاره اصلی تعداد زیادی قمر طبیعی (اقمار) ، تعداد زیادی سیارکها ، تعداد نامعلومی ستاره‌های دنباله‌دار به همراه شهابها ، شهاب سنگها به دور خورشید در حال گسترش هستند.

محتویات منظومه شمسی

تمامی اجرامی که تحت نیروهای گرانشی خورشید در مدارها در گردشند، منظومه شمسی را تشکیل می‌دهند. این اجرام بر اساس جرمشان در سلسله مراتب مشخص قرار دارند، در راس آنها خورشید واقع است، سپس سیارات ، اقمار و حلقه‌های آنها ، خرده‌های بین سیاره‌ای (ستاره‌های دنباله‌دار ، سیارکها ، شهابها) و در آخرین مرتبه گازها و گرد و غبار بین سیاره‌ای قرار دارند.

نظریه برخورد نزدیک

در اوایل قرن بیستم میلادی دو اخترشناس امریکایی نظریه برخورد نزدیک را ارائه دادند که بنا به عقیده آنها ، ذراتی از ماده خورشید ، در اثر برخورد نزدیک یک ستاره دیگر بیرون ریخته است. بعدا این ذرات به همدیگر پیوسته و اجرام بزرگی را تشکیل می‌دهند که از این اجرام بزرگ ، سیاره‌ها بوجود آمده‌اند.

فرضیه کانت - لاپلاس

نظریه مهم دیگر در سال 1755 میلادی (1134 شمسی) بوسیله فیلسوف آلمانی ، امانوئل کانت ، مطرح شد. نظر کانت به عقیده قابل قبول امروزی شبیه است. بر طبق آن ، منظومه شمسی از یک ابر گاز و غبار در حال چرخش ، شکل گرفته است. نظر کانت بوسیله ریاضیدان فرانسوی به نام پیر دو لاپلاس بسط داده شد. فرضیه کانت - لاپلاس ، یک ابر بسیار بزرگ از گازهای داغ را ترسیم می‌کند که به دور محور خود می‌چرخد. کانت و لاپلاس ، این ابر بزرگ را سحابی نامیده‌اند.
سرد شدن گاز سحابی ، باعث انقباض آن می‌شود. در این ضمن ، با انقباض جرم اصلی ، حلقه‌هایی از گاز در اطراف آن باقی می‌مانند. این جرم اصلی همان خورشید است. حلقه‌ها ، در اثر نیروی گریز از مرکز (نیرویی است که اجسام در حال چرخش را به طرف بیرون از مرکز چرخش می‌راند.) از مرکز دور می‌شوند. بنابراین فرضیه ، حلقه‌های جدا از هم ، منقبض شده و سیاره‌ها را بوجود آورده‌اند. دانشمندان در درستی این نظر تردید دارند، چرا که گازهای داغ گرایشی به انقباض ندارند، بلکه در فضا گسترش می‌یابند.

نظریه جدید ابرغبار

فیزیکدان آلمانی کارل فون وایتسزیکر بنیاد اصلی تئوری جدید ابر غبار را پیشنهاد کرد. بعد از آن اخترشناس امریکایی به نام جرارد کویپر نظر وایتسزیکر را به‌صورت تئوری جدید منشا منظومه شمسی تکمیل کرد. سیارات منظومه شمسی ، از همان گاز و غباری شکل گرفته‌اند که خورشید از آن پدید آمده است. ابر بزرگ با گردش خود در فضا به بخشهای کوچکتری تقسیم شده است.
ذرات موجود در این بخشها ، همدیگر را جذب کرده‌اند و سرانجام سیاره‌ها را بوجود آورده‌اند. بیشتر مواد ابر اصلی در اثر تابش خورشید از آن دور شده‌اند، ولی پیش از آنکه خورشید ، حالت ستاره به خود گیرد، اندازه سیاره‌ها به حدی رسیده بود که می‌توانستند در مداری به دور آن باقی بمانند یا گردش کنند.

شکل گیری منظومه شمسی از دید دینامیک

منظومه شمسی یک ساختار منظم را برحسب خواص فیزیکی‌اش نشان می‌دهد، بطوری که اگر از بالای قطب شمال خورشید دیده شود، منظومه شمسی قواعد زیر را پیدا می‌کند:

1. سیارات در خلاف جهت عقربه‌های ساعت در اطراف خورشید می‌گردند، خورشید نیز در همان جهت به دور خود می‌چرخد.
2. به استثنای عطارد و پلوتو ، اکثر سیارات دارای صفحات مداری هستند که فقط بطور جزئی با صفحه دایرة‌البروج شیب دارند، مدارها تقریبا هم صفحه هستند.
3. به استثنای عطارد و پلوتو ، سیارات در مدارهایی می‌گردند که خیلی به دایره نزدیک هستند.
4. به استثنای زهره و اورانوس ، سیارات در خلاف جهت عقربه‌های ساعت (یعنی در همان جهت حرکت مداریشان) به دور خود می‌چرخند.
5. اکثر قمرها در همان جهتی که سیارات مادرشان به دور خود می‌چرخند و در نزدیکی صفحات استوایی سیارات قرار دارند.
6. ستاره‌های دنباله‌دار با دوره تناوب طولانی ، مدارهایی دارند که از همه جهات و زوایا می‌آیند، بر خلاف مدارهای هم صفحه سیارات ، اقمار ، سیارکها و ستاره‌های دنباله‌دار با دوره تناوب کوتاه.
7. سه عدد از سیارات مشتری‌گون شناخته شده‌اند که دارای حلقه هستند.

شکل گیری منظومه شمسی از دید شیمی

تشکیل یک سیاره مستلزم یک فرآیند چند مرحله‌ای است، اولا دانه‌های جامد متعلق به سحابی خورشید متراکم می‌شوند. ثانیا این ذرات باهم یکی شده و اجرام آسمانی بزرگ به نام ریز سیارات را شکل می‌دهند که سپس تصادم کرده و برای تشکیل پیش سیارات با هم یکی می‌شوند و به سیارات امروزی متحول می‌گردند. ترکیبات شیمیایی سیارات بوسیله فرآیندی به نام تسلسل تراکم از روی تراکم دانه‌ها تعیین می‌شوند. ایده اولیه تسلسل تراکم این است:
مرکز سحابی باید در دمایی برابر چندین هزار درجه کلوین بوده باشد. در اینجا دانه‌های جامد ، حتی ترکیبات آهن و سیلیکاتها نمی‌توانستند متراکم شوند. در جای دیگر که مواد می‌توانستند به عنوان دانه‌های جدید متراکم شوند، به‌صورت زیر به دما بستگی داشت:
پایینتر از 2000 کلوین ، دانه‌های ساخته شده از مواد خاکی متراکم شدند، زیر 273 کلوین دانه‌های مواد خاکی و یخی هر دو می‌توانستند شکل بگیرند. در دمای متفاوت گازهای موجود و جامدات حاضر بطور شیمیایی برهمکنش کرده و ترکیبات متنوعی را تولید می‌کنند. اگر دمای سحابی به سرعت از مرکز به طرف بیرون کاهش یابد، چگالیها و ترکیبات سیارات می‌توانند با تسلسل تراکم توضیح داده شوند.

مرجع: http://www.atcce.com/علامه_طباطبایی/پیدایش_منظومه_شمسی_-473.htm

برای کسب اطلاعات بیشتر به سایت آلابولا مراجعه کنید:

بدون شک سایت آلابولا بهترین سایتی هست که تا حالا دیدم. در این سایت مطالب متنوع علمی, تفریحی, آموزشی بصورت آورده شده است که دیدن آن را به همه توصیه می کنم.

سایت آلابولا:        www.alaboola.com

 

امثال و حکم ; ۱٠:۳۳ ‎ق.ظ ; سه‌شنبه ٥ آذر ۱۳۸٧

پیدایش جشن نوروز

پیدایش جشن نوروز

در ادبیات فارسی جشن نوروز را مانند بسیاری از آیین های دیگر ، رسم ها ، فرهنگ ها و تمدن ها به نخستین پادشاهان نسبت می دهند. شاعران و نویسندگان قرن چهارم و پنجم هجری ، چون فردوسی ، منوچهری ، عنصری ، بیرونی ، طبری ، مسعودی ، ابن مسکویه ، گردیزی و بسیاری دیگر که منبع تاریخی - اسطوره ای آنان بی گمان ادبیات پیش از اسلام بوده ، نوروز و برگزاری جشن نوروز را از زمان پادشاهی جمشید می دانند ، که تنها به چند نمونه و مورد اشاره می شود:
از آن بر شده فره بخـت اوی
جهان انجمن شد بر تخت اوی
مر آن روز را روز نو خواندند
به جمشیـد بر گـوهر افشاندند
بر آسوده از رنج تن، دل ز کین
سرسال نو هرمـز فرودین
بر آن تخت بنشست فیروز روز
به نوروز نو شاه گیتی فروز
می و رود و رامشگران خواستند
بزرگان به شادی بیاراستنـد
محمد بن جریر طبری نوروز را سر آغاز دادگری جمشید دانسته است : « جمشید علما را فرمود که آن روز که من بنشستم به مظالم ، شما نزد من باشید تا هر چه در او داد و عدل باشد بنمایید ، تا من آن کنم. و آن روز که بهمظالم [مجلسی که به شکایت مردم در باب ظلمهایی که بدانان شده، رسیدگی می شده]نشست ، روز هرمز بود از ماه فروردین ؛ پس آن روز رسم کردند.»
ابوریحان بیرونی ، پرواز کردن جمشید را آغاز جشن نوروز می داند: «چون جمشید برای خود گردونه بساخت ؛ در این روز بر آن سوار شد ، و جن و شیاطین او را در هوا حمل کردند و به یک روز از کوه دماوند به بابل آمد و مردم برای دیدن این امر به شگفت شدند پس این روز را عید گرفته و برای یادبود آن روز تاب می نشینند و تاب می خورند.»
به نوشته گردیزی: « جمشید جشن نوروز را به شکرانه این که خداوند گرما و سرما و بیماری و مرگ را از مردمان گرفت و سیصد سال بر این جمله بود ، برگزار کرد » و هم در این روز بود که جمشید بر گوساله ای نشست و به سوی جنوب رفت ، به حرب دیوان و سیاهان ، و با ایشان حرب کرد و همه را مقهور ساخت.
و سرانجام خیام می نویسد که « جمشید به مناسبت باز آمدن خورشید بهبرج حمل[هر یک از دوازده حصه ی منطقةالبروج، که اسامی آنها از این قرار است: 1- حمل 2- ثور 3- جوزا 4- سرطان 5- اسد 6- سنبله 7- میزان 8- عقرب 9- قوس 10- جدی 11- دلو 12- حوت ] قدما برای هر یک از برجهای دوازده گانه ی فلکی(منطقة البروج) قوه ی فاعله و منفعله قائل بودند ، یعنی آنها را گرم و سرد یا خشک و تر می پنداشتند، به همین جهت دوازده برج را به چهار دسته ، آبی ، آتشی ، بادی و خاکی تقسیم کرده بودند، که هر سه برج، به یکی از این تقسیمات تعلق دارد. برجهای آبی: برجهایی که دارای مزاجی سرد و ترند: سرطان، عقرب و حوت. برجهای آتشی: برجهایی که دارای مزاجی گرم و خشک اند: حمل، اسد و قوس. برجهای بادی: برجهایی که دارای مزاجی گرم و ترند: جوزا، میزان و دلو. برجهای خاکی: برجهایی که دارای مزاجی سرد و خشک اند: ثور، سنبله وجدی.]، نوروز را جشن گرفت: سبب نهادن نوروز آن بوده است که آفتاب را دو دور بوده ، یکی آنکه هر سیصد و شصت و پنج شبانه روز به اول دقیقهحمل باز آمد و به همان روز که رفته بود بدین دقیقه نتواند باز آمدن ، چه هر سال از مدت همی کم شود ؛ و چون جمشید ، آن روز دریافت (آن را) نوروز نام نهاد و جشن و آیین آورد و پس از آن پادشاهان و دیگر مردمان بدو اقتدا کردند.»
در خور یادآوری است که جشن نوروز پیش از جمشید نیز برگزار می شده و ابوریحان نیز ، با آنکه جشن را به جمشید منسوب می کند ، یادآور می شود که ، آن روز را که روز تازه ای بود جمشید عید گرفت ؛ اگر چه پیش از آن هم نوروز ، بزرگ و معظم بود.
گذشته از ایران ، در آسیای صغیر و یونان، برگزاری جشن ها و آیین هایی را در آغاز بهار سراغ داریم. در منطقه لیدی بر اساس اسطوره های کهن، به افتخار سی بل، الهه ی باروری و معروف به مادر خدایان، و الهه ی آتیس جشنی در هنگام رسیدن خورشید به برج حمل و هنگام اعتدال بهاری، برگزار می شد. مورخان از برگزاری آن در زمان اگوست شاه در تمامی سرزمین های یونان و لیدی و آناتولی خبر می دهند. به ویژه از جشن و شادی بزرگ در سه روز 25 تا 28 مارچ (4 تا 7 فروردین).
صدرالدین عینی درباره برگزاری جشن نوروز در تاجیکستان و بخارا (ازبکستان) می نویسد: «... به سبب اول بهار، در وقت به حرکت در آمدن تمام رستنی ها، راست آمدن این عید، طبیعت انسان هم به حرکت می آید. از این جاست که تاجیکان می گویند: حمل، همه چیز در عمل. در حقیقت این عید به حرکت آمدن کشت های غله، دانه و سرشدن (آغاز) کشت و کار و دیگر محصولات زمینی است که انسان را سیر کرده و سبب بقای حیات او می شود.
وی در جای دیگر می گوید: در بخارا «نوروز» را که عید ملی عموم فارسی زبانان بوده ، بسیار حرمت می کردند. حتی ملای های دینی این عید را که پیش از اسلام ، عادت ملی بوده بعد از مسلمان شدن هم را ترک نکردند ، حتی رنگ دینی اسلامی داده و از وی فایده می بردند. ولی برگزاری شکوهمند و همگانی این جشن در دستگاه های حکومتی و سازمان های دولتی و غیر دولتی و در بین همه قشرها و گروه های اجتماعی، بی گمان، از ویژگی های ایران زمین است که با وجود جنگ و ستیزها، شکست ها و دگرگونی های سیاسی، اجتماعی، اعتقادی علمی و فنی، از روزگاران کهن پا برجا مانده و افزون بر آن به جامعه ها و فرهنگ های دیگر نیز راه یافته است؛ در مقام مقایسه، امروز جامعه و کشوری را با جشن و آیین چندین روزه ای که چنین همگانی و مورد احترام و باور خاص و عام، فقیر و غنی، کوچک و بزرگ و بالاخره شهری و روستایی و عشایری باشد، سراغ نداریم.
آغاز سال
مردم شناسان را عقیده بر این است که محاسبه آغاز سال، در میان قوم ها و گروه های کهن، از دوران کشاورزی، همراه با مرحله ای از کشت یا برداشت بوده و بدین جهت است که آغاز سال نو در بیشتر کشورها و آیین ها در نخستین روزهای پائیز، زمستان و یا بهار می باشد.
نخستین محاسبه ی فصل ها، بی گمان در همه جوامع، با گردش ماه که تغییر آن محسوس تر و عینی تربود، صورت گرفت؛ اما به علت نارسایی ها و ناهماهنگی هایی که تقویم قمری، با تقویم دهقانی داشت، محاسبه و تنظیم تقویم بر اساس گردش خورشید انجام شد.
سال در نزد ایرانیان همواره دارای فصل نبود، زمانی شامل دو فصل : زمستان ده ماهه و تابستان دو ماهه؛ زمانی دیگر تابستان هفت ماه (از فروردین تا آبان) و زمستان پنج ماه (از آبان تا فروردین) بود و سرانجام از زمانی نسبتاً کهن به چهار فصل سه ماهه تقسیم شد. گذشته از ایران: «سال و ماه سغدی ها، خوارزمی ها، سیستانی ها در شرق و کاپادوکی ها و ارمنی ها در مغرب ایران، بدون کم وزیاد همان سال و ماه ایرانی است.»
آغاز سال ایرانیان، هر چند زمانی دستخوش تغییر گردید ولی حمزه اصفهانی در کتاب «سنی ملوک الارض و الانبیاء» و ابوریحان بیرونی در «آثار الباقیه» می گویند که آغاز سال ایرانی، از زمان خلقت انسان (یعنی ابتدای هزاره هفتم از تاریخ عالم) روز هرمز از ماه فروردین بوده یعنی وقتی که آفتاب در نصف النهار، در نقطه اعتدال ربیعی و طالع سرطان قرار می گرفت.

منبع: http://www.tebyan.net/Literature_Art/SpecialEdition/2003/3/27/1855.html

برای کسب اطلاعات بیشتر به سایت آلابولا مراجعه کنید:

بدون شک سایت آلابولا بهترین سایتی هست که تا حالا دیدم. در این سایت مطالب متنوع علمی, تفریحی, آموزشی بصورت آورده شده است که دیدن آن را به همه توصیه می کنم.

سایت آلابولا:        www.alaboola.com

 

امثال و حکم ; ۱٠:٢٩ ‎ق.ظ ; سه‌شنبه ٥ آذر ۱۳۸٧

پیدایش کاراته

پیدایش کاراته
سپتامبر 27, 2008 — کاوه گیــــــلانی (لابدان)
حرف های خودمانی

در راستای تغییرات اساسی و به قولی بنیادی و نیز در امتداد شکوفایی استعداد های نهفته و نشکفته بعد از شروع گردآوری و نشر مطالب گیلان شناسی مطالبی در باب ورزشهای رزمی {از هر ولایتی}نیز منتشر خواهم کرد، این بنده سراپا تقصیر قبل از اینکه به ورزش شیرین و مفرح جودو روی بیاورم بوکس را برای مدتی مزه مزه کردم ولی خیلی قبل تر از آن یعنی در زمانی که به لواشک می گفتم لحاف دشک ، خیر سرم کاراته کار بودم و چند صباحی دست و پایی پرت می کردم {یادم باشد خاطره ای از آن دوران برایتان نقل کنم} و به نوعی از دوران کودکی در جو بروسلی بودم {هر چند که داش بروس ما چینی بود} در بین کتاب های قدیمی چند کتاب هم در مورد کاراته دارم که یکی از جالبترین کتاب های موجود در قفسه کتابخانه اتاقم کتاب بزرگان کاراته است ، شاید کم و بیش اگر شنیده باشید ورزش کاراته دارای سبک های متعددی که هر کدام برای خود حکایتی دارد که خواندنش خالی از لطف نیست، از کیوکوشین {ناز ترین و خشن ترین سبک کاراته به نظر من} و استاد ایاما {فیلم زندگی ایاما توسط صدا وسیما ایران هم پخش شده} یا گوگن یاماگوشی که سبک گوجوریو را با شیوه ای نوین عرضه کرد و … به هر حال این بخش را به خاطر احترام به ورزش دوران کودکی با کاراته شروع می کنم . راستش نکته اساسی دیگری هم که باید یاد آور شوم، گیلان به نوعی پایتخت کاراته ایران هم هست ، چون بیشتر قهرمانان این ورزش گیلانی هستند!

پیدایش کاراته نوین

اوایل قرن بیستم بود که یک گروه از استادان اوکیناوائی الاصل به نام های گی چین فوناگوشی، کنوامابوی، موتوبو، چوموهاناشیرو، شین کو ماتایوشی و شین پان شیروما در آن دوره نهضت کاراته را در ژاپن به امید به دست گرفتن هویت ملی از انجمن هنرهای رزمی ژاپن براه انداختند. در اواسط سال های 1930 فقط وقتی که اصلاحاتی روی آن انجام گرفت به وسیله ی دولت ژاپن مورد قبول قرار گرفت و متعاقباً ترقی کرد.

بوتوکوکای (انجمن هنرهای رزمی ژاپن) در سال 1895 تأسیس شد. این انجمن به وسیله ی بهترین هنرمندان رزمی ژاپن اداره می شد.

آموزش به ترتیب از کندو، جودو، ناگی ناتادو درجه بندی گردید و همچنین مقدمه راه های نظامی فلسفه بوشیدو. علاوه بر این بوتوکوکای روی اهمیت آموزش هنرهای نظامی در سیستم کلی آموزش و پرورش تأکید بسیار داشت.

بعد از مذاکره با بوتوکوکای و بعد از نمایش های عمومی و خصوصی استادان کاراته ترتیبی دادند تا بوتوکوکای معیاری برای پذیرش کاراته در داخل برنامه های خود تدوین کند.

استادان اوکیناوایی در ژاپن ابتدا رسماً در موارد زیر توافق کردند: کاراته می بایست گروه های مختلف خود را متحد کند. گروه های کاراته می بایست لباس متحدالشکلی برای خود برگزینند و مواد و استاندارهایی برای امتحان، میزان کارایی در نظر بگیرند و قالب های رقابیت را سازمان دهند مانند آنچه در کندو و جودو هست. استادان همچون مأبونی و فوناگوشی کارها را به انجام رساندند و کاراته در بوتوکوکای پذیرفته شد. از طریق نفوذ این سازمان کاراته در ژاپن شروع به رشد و شکوفایی کرد. در طی این مدت یک شاخه از انجمن در ناهااوکیناوا تأسیس شد. در آنجا هنرهای کندو و جودو به همراه کاراته به وسیله چوجون میاگی بنیانگذار گوجوریو تعلیم داده می شد.

در ژاپن وقتی بوتوکوکای خطوط کلی خود را بر طبق بوشیدو قرار داد، بیش از آنچه که در اوکیناوا در اصل شناخته شده بود وضعیت نظامی به خود گرفت. با چنین ابداع و نوآوری چهار سبک اصلی کاراته شکل گرفتند. وادوریو، شیتوریو، شوتوکان و گوجوریو.

در مدت کوتاهی بعد از اینکه ژاپن در سال 1945 بدون قید و شرط تسلیم نیروهای بیگانه شد. ژنرال مک آرتور قانون ممنوعیت هر گونه مؤسسه ای را که از نظر نیروهای خارجی ریشه ای در نظامی گرایی داشته به اجرا گذارد و بوتوکوکای در سر این لیست قرار گرفت و تعطیل شد.

بوتوکوکای در سال 1949 دوباره تأسیس شد. ار آنجائیکه ساختمان اصلی و اولیه ی آن به وسیله ی ارتش ششم در اشغال باقی مانده بود، مجبور به اقامت در جای دیگری شد. امروزه این سازمان که در گسترش کاراته بسیار مفید بوده مانند دوران قبل از جنگ در استفاده ی عموم نیست. بوتوکوکای هم اکنون میزبان گروه های مختلف مانند ای آی دو، کندو، جودو، کاراته، جوجیتسو است.

کاراته ابتدا در سال 1927 در هاوایی به وسیله ی یکی از استادان پیشرو اوکیناوا به نام کنتسویابو معرفی شد. هنر رزمی کاراته اوکیناوایی راه خود را به آمریکای شمالی از طریق کارکنان آمریکایی در مراجعه به زادگاهشان بعد از اقامت در اوکیناوا در طی و بعد جنگ دوم جهانی باز کرد.

ادامه دارد…

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امثال و حکم ; ۱٠:٢۸ ‎ق.ظ ; سه‌شنبه ٥ آذر ۱۳۸٧

پیدایش مثلثات

پیدایش مثلثات
تاریخ علم به آدمی یاری می رساند تا «دانش» را از «شبه دانش» و «درست» را از «نادرست» تشخیص دهد و در بند خرافه و موهومات گرفتار نشود.


تاریخ علم به آدمی یاری می رساند تا «دانش» را از «شبه دانش» و «درست» را از «نادرست» تشخیص دهد و در بند خرافه و موهومات گرفتار نشود. در میان تاریخ علم، تاریخ ریاضیات و سرگذشت آن در بین اقوام مختلف ، مهجور واقع شده و به رغم اهمیت زیاد، از آن غافل مانده اند. در نظر داریم در این فضای اندک و در حد وسعمان برخی از حقایق تاریخی( به خصوص در مورد رشته ریاضیات) را برایتان روشن و اهمیت زیاد ریاضی و تاریخ آن را در زندگی روزمره بیان کنیم.
برای بسیاری از افراد پرسش هایی پیش می آید که پاسخی برای آن ندارند: چه شده است که محیط دایره یا زاویه را با درجه و دقیقه و ثانیه و بخش های شصت شصتی اندازه می گیرند؟ چرا ریاضیات با کمیت های ثابت ادامه نیافت و به ریاضیات با کمیت های متغیر روی آوردند؟ مفهوم تغییر مبناها در عدد نویسی و عدد شماری از کجا و به چه مناسبت آغاز شد؟ یا چرا در سراسر جهان عدد نویسی در مبنای ۱۰ را پذیرفته اند، با اینکه برای نمونه عدد نویسی در مبنای ۱۲ می تواند به ساده تر شدن محاسبه ها کمک کند؟ ریاضیات از چه بحران هایی گذشته و چگونه راه خود را به جلو گشوده است؟ چرا جبر جانشین حساب شد، چه ضرورت هایی موجب پیدایش چندجمله ای های جبری و معادله شد؟ و… برای یافتن پاسخ های این سئوالات و هزاران سئوال مشابه دیگر در کلیه رشته ها، تلاش می کنیم راه را نشان دهیم، پیمودن آن با شماست…
● پیدایش مثلثات
از نامگذاری «مثلثات» می توان حدس زد که این شاخه از ریاضیات دست کم در آغاز پیدایش خود به نحوی با «مثلث» و مسئله های مربوط به مثلث بستگی داشته است. در واقع پیدایش و پیشرفت مثلثات را باید نتیجه ای از تلاش های ریاضیدانان برای رفع دشواری های مربوط به محاسبه هایی دانست که در هندسه روبه روی دانشمندان بوده است.
در ضمن دشواری های هندسی، خود ناشی از مسئله هایی بوده است که در اخترشناسی با آن روبه رو می شده اند و بیشتر جنبه محاسبه ای داشته اند. در اخترشناسی اغلب به مسئله هایی بر می خوریم که برای حل آنها به مثلثات و دستورهای آن نیازمندیم. ساده ترین این مسئله ها، پیدا کردن یک کمان دایره (بر حسب درجه) است، وقتی که شعاع دایره و طول وتر این کمان معلوم باشد یا برعکس، پیدا کردن طول وتری که طول شعاع دایره و اندازه کمان معلوم باشد. می دانید سینوس یک کمان از لحاظ قدر مطلق برابر با نصف طول وتر دو برابر آن کمان است. همین تعریف ساده اساس رابطه بین کمان ها و وترها را در دایره تشکیل می دهد و مثلثات هم از همین جا شروع شد.
کهن ترین جدولی که به ما رسیده است و در آن طول وترهای برخی کمان ها داده شده است متعلق به هیپارک، اخترشناس سده دوم میلادی است و شاید بتوان تنظیم این جدول را نخستین گام در راه پیدایش مثلثات دانست. منه لائوس ریاضیدان و بطلمیوس اخترشناس (هر دو در سده دوم میلادی) نیز در این زمینه نوشته هایی از خود باقی گذاشته اند. ولی همه کارهای ریاضیدانان و اخترشناسان یونانی در درون هندسه انجام گرفت و هرگز به مفهوم های اصلی مثلثات نرسیدند.
نخستین گام اصلی به وسیله آریابهاتا، ریاضیدان هندی سده پنجم میلادی برداشته شد که در واقع تعریفی برای نیم وتر یک کمان _یعنی همان سینوس- داد. از این به بعد به تقریب همه کارهای مربوط به شکل گیری مثلثات (چه در روی صفحه و چه در روی کره) به وسیله دانشمندان ایرانی انجام گرفت.
خوارزمی نخستین جدول های سینوسی را تنظیم کرد و پس از او همه ریاضیدانان ایرانی گام هایی در جهت تکمیل این جدول ها و گسترش مفهوم های مثلثاتی برداشتند. مروزی جدول سینوس ها را تقریبا ۳۰ درجه به ۳۰ درجه تنظیم کرد و برای نخستین بار به دلیل نیازهای اخترشناسی مفهوم تانژانت را تعریف کرد.
جدی ترین تلاش ها به وسیله ابوریحان بیرونی و ابوالوفای بوزجانی انجام گرفت که توانستند پیچیده ترین دستورهای مثلثاتی را پیدا کنند و جدول های سینوسی و تانژانتی را با دقت بیشتری تنظیم کنند. ابوالوفا با روش جالبی به یاری نابرابری ها توانست مقدار سینوس کمان ۳۰ دقیقه را پیدا کند و سرانجام خواجه نصیرالدین طوسی با جمع بندی کارهای دانشمندان ایرانی پیش از خود نخستین کتاب مستقل مثلثات را نوشت.
بعد از طوسی، جمشید کاشانی ریاضیدان ایرانی زمان تیموریان با استفاده از روش زیبایی که برای حل معادله درجه سوم پیدا کرده بود، توانست راهی برای محاسبه سینوس کمان یک درجه با هر دقت دلخواه پیدا کند. پیشرفت بعدی دانش مثلثات از سده پانزدهم میلادی و در اروپای غربی انجام گرفت. یک نمونه از مواردی که ایرانی بودن این دانش را تا حدودی نشان می دهد از این قرار است: ریاضیدانان ایرانی از واژه «جیب» (واژه عربی به معنی «گریبان») برای سینوس و از واژه «جیب تمام» برای کسینوس استفاده می کردند.
وقتی نوشته های ریاضیدانان ایرانی به ویژه خوارزمی به زبان لاتین و زبان های اروپایی ترجمه شد، معنای واژه «جیب» را در زبان خود به جای آن گذاشتند: سینوس. این واژه در زبان فرانسوی همان معنای جیب عربی را دارد. نخستین ترجمه از نوشته های ریاضیدانان ایرانی که در آن صحبت از نسبت های مثلثاتی شده است، ترجمه ای بود که در سده دوازدهم میلادی به وسیله «گرادوس کره مونه سیس» ایتالیایی از عربی به لاتینی انجام گرفت و در آن واژه سینوس را به کار برد. اما درباره ریشه واژه «جیب» دو دیدگاه وجود دارد: «جیا» در زبان سانسکریت به معنای وتر و گاهی «نیم وتر» است.
نخستین کتابی که به وسیله فزازی (یک ریاضیدان ایرانی) به دستور منصور خلیفه عباسی به زبان عربی ترجمه شد، کتابی از نوشته های دانشمندان هندی درباره اخترشناسی بود. مترجم برای حرمت گذاشتن به نویسندگان کتاب، «جیا» را تغییر نمی دهد و تنها برای اینکه در عربی بی معنا نباشد، آن را به صورت «جیب» در می آورد. دیدگاه دوم که منطقی تر به نظر می آید این است که در ترجمه از واژه فارسی «جیپ»- بر وزن سیب- استفاده شد که به معنی «تکه چوب عمود» یا «دیرک» است. نسخه نویسان بعدی که فارسی را فراموش کرده بودند و معنای «جیپ» را نمی دانستند، آن را «جیب» خواندند که در عربی معنایی داشته باشد.

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امثال و حکم ; ۱٠:٢۸ ‎ق.ظ ; سه‌شنبه ٥ آذر ۱۳۸٧

پیدایش آرشیو در انگلیس

از قرن 13 میلادی به بعد، اسناد مهمی در لوحه‌های پوستی ثبت می‌شد و مطالب برخی از این لوحه‌ها، از اهمیت بسیاری برخوردار بود و در زمرة مدارک قانونی به شمار می‌رفت، ولی مقامات مختلف به آنها اهمیت زیادی داده نمی‌شد.

به طور کلی، باید توجه داشت که آن اهمیتی که سایر کشورها نظیر دانمارک و فرانسه به نگهداری مدارک می‌دادند، انگلیسیها در این مورد بی‌توجه بودند؛ گرچه حجم لوحه‌ها و پرونده‌ها قابل توجه بود، حتی دولت چندان رغبتی به تمرکز این‌‌گونه مدارک و جمع آوری آنها نشان نمی‌داد و مدارک گوناگون در معابد و برجها به صورت نامنظم و در جای مرطوب نگهداری می‌شد. در ایام مختلف، صاحبنظران و افراد مطلعی از قبیل ویلیام پریالی به فکر منظم کردن مدارک و تدارک محل مناسبی در نزدیک ساختمان حکومتی افتادند؛ تا اینکه در سال 1732م.، کتابخانة CTTON آتش گرفت. برخی معتقد بودند که آتش‌سوزی عمدی بوده و کمیته‌ای[1] به منظور یافتن علل آتش سوزی تعیین گردید و متعاقب آن، فکر نگهداری مدارک و اسناد قوت گرفت؛ تا اینکه در دهة اول 1800م. مدارک مختلفی، در بیش از 50 مخزن گوناگون در لندن و اطراف آن پیدا کردند. با پیدا شدن این مدارک، هیئتی انتخاب شد و به بررسی مدارک پرداخت؛ اما اقدامات آن هیئت به کندی پیش می‌رفت و نتایج مطلوبی به دست نداد تا سرانجام، گروهی یا هیئتی را مجلس انگلیس تعیین کرد. نسبت به بازبینی و تفکیک اوراق زائد و مدارک لازم جهت نگهداری اقدام کند. این کارگروه، در سال 1836م. گزارش نهائی خود را به مجلس داد و پیشنهاد تأسیس سازمانی را برای نگهداری کلیة اسناد عمومی ارائه کرد و بالأخره آرشیو ملی انگلیس، درسال 1838م تأسیس گردید و متعاقب آن، در سال 1877م. مجلس به رئیس آرشیو ملی اجازه داد که جهت امحای اوراق زائد، مقررات لازم را وضع و به تصویب پارلمان برساند. مقررات و دستورالعملهای لازم در مدت چند سال تهیه و به پارلمان پیشنهاد گردید و به سال 1898م. به تصویب رسید. متعاقب آن، در سال 1951م. چنین ملاحظه گردید که مقررات موجود، با توجه به روند روزافزون پرونده‌های راکد و سایر مدارک، مقررات نارسائی دارد. بدین جهت، کمیسیونی بعد از یک‌سال به نام گریک، مأمور تهیة پیشنهاد اصلاحی شد و گزارش این هیئت در سال 1954م. منتشر شد و یکسال بعد مورد تصویب دولت قرار گرفت. متعاقب آن، مجلس براساس کمیسیون گریک در سال 1958م. قانون تازه‌ای به تصویب رساند که براساس آن مسئولیت بررسی و انتخاب پرونده‌های لازم برای نگهداری و از میان بردن مابقی آنها را به عهدة وزارتخانه‌ها و سازمانهای مربوط، با راهنمائی و نظارت آرشیو ملی گذاشت و همین تصمیم، به آرشیو ملی اختیاراتی داد تا برخلاف قانون 1877م.، برای امحای اوراق زائد نیازی به مجوز پارلمان نباشد.
به دنبال اقدامات آرشیو، امحای سوابق غیرلازم و انتقال اسناد باارزش به آرشیو ملی، با رعایت موازینی صورت پذیرفت.



مقرر گردید هر پروندة راکد که پس از 5 سال به وسیلة وزارتخانه‌ها مورد بررسی مقدماتی قرار گیرد، در صورتی که در عرض این مدت مراجعه کننده‌‌ای نداشت یا از لحاظ اداری و علمی و تحقیقی ارزش نگهداری نداشته باشد، در زمرة اوراق زائد قرار گیرد. همچنین پرونده‌هایی که مورد نیاز تشخیص داده می‌شد، در وزارتخانه‌ها و سازمانهای مربوط نگهداری ‌شود و بتدریج به بایگانی راکد منتقل گردد. به طور کلی بررسی نهائی پرونده‌های راکد در بایگانی راکد کل، پس از 25 سال تحقق می‌پذیرفت. این امر، زیر نظر نمایندگان آرشیو ملی انجام می‌گرفت. هرگاه پرونده‌ای قابلیت نگهداری دائمی می‌داشت، به آرشیو ملی فرستاده می‌شد والا امحا می‌گردید. بدین ترتیب، این نوع مدارک به آرشیو ملی منتقل می‌گردید و در اختیار محققان و پژوهشگران قرار می‌گرفت. بتدریج مقرراتی حاکم شد که استفاده از این نوع مدارک و اسناد پس از گذشت 50 سال از تاریخ تهیه میسر باشد؛ مگر آنکه وزارتخانه‌ یا هیئت بررسی کننده، سری بودن آنها را تأکید نماید. البته وزارتخانه‌ها و سازمانهای دولتی، این اختیار را داشتند که پرونده‌هائی که هنوز 50 ساله نشده‌اند، با مجوز کتبی آن وزارتخانه‌ در دسترس افراد و محققان گذاشته شود. آرشیو ملی انگلستان، از دو مرکز اصلی تشکیل می‌گردید که این دو مرکز از یک هیئت واحد دستور می‌گرفت و رئیس آن، به عنوان آرشیویست کل خوانده می‌شد. این دو مرکز، عبارت بودند:
1- بایگانی کل:[2] به منظور نقل و انتقال پرونده‌های راکد از سازمانهای مختلف؛
2- آرشیو: برای نگهداری اسناد و مدارک قابل قبول.
در رأس هر یک از این دو مرکز، یک معاون قرار گرفته بود که با تبادل نظر و همکاری، اقدامات لازم را انجام می‌داد. رئیس کل آرشیو را، نخست‌وزیر تعیین می‌کرد. او، مقام علاوه بر آنکه در کابینه شرکت می‌کرد، از شخص نخست وزیر دستور می‌گرفت و در صورت لزوم در انتخاب مقامات قضائی نیز نظر می‌داد و همچنین، در مورد ثبت اسناد اراضی در غیبت ملکة انگلستان مشارکت داشت و نیز، عضو شورای سلطنتی به شمار می‌رفت.
با مصوبات آرشیو کل، هیچ وزارتخانه‌ای نمی‌توانست پرونده‌ای را بیش از 30 سال که از تاریخ تهیة آن می‌گذشت، نزد خود نگهداری کند. باید در نظر داشت در هیئت گریک - که قبلاً بدان اشاره شد- در زمینة تأسیس آرشیو ملی قرار بود وزارت فرهنگ بر آرشیو ملی نظارت عالیه داشته باشد، ولی پارلمان با نظارت عالیة نخست وزیر و اشراف رئیس آرشیو کل بر آرشیو ملی وبایگانی، موافقت کرد.

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امثال و حکم ; ۱٠:٢٦ ‎ق.ظ ; سه‌شنبه ٥ آذر ۱۳۸٧

پیدایش خط

اینکه سومریها یا مصریان یا فینیقی‌ها مخترع خط بوده‌اند و اینکه ابتدا به صورت هروگلیف یا تصویری بوده و سپس به میخی ناقص و بعد کامل درآمده، قابل مطالعه است. ولی آنچه مشخصّ می‌باشد اینکه خط ارتباط به زمان و مکان خاصی ندارد بلکه هر قوم و ملتی از ابتدا برای خود علایم و اشاراتی داشته‌اند که با گذشت زمان و تکامل، به خط تبدیل شده است. در ایران از زمانهای دور هم خط و هم نگارش رایج بوده است. ابن‌الندیم می‌نویسد: «در کتابخانه‌ای که در سارویة جی اصفهان پیدا شده، نوشته‌ای یافته‌اند که بنیاد کتابخانه را به تهمورث دیوبند نسبت می‌دهد.» حمزه اصفهانی در کتاب «التنبیه علی الحدوث التصحیف» می‌نویسد: «ایرانیان باستان هفت نوع کتابت داشتند بدین نام: آم دفیره، کشته دبیره، نیم کشته دبیره، فرورده دفیره، رازدفیره، دین دفیره و وسف دفیره.» هر کدام از این کتابت‌ها (دفیره‌ها) برای نگاشتن مطالب خاصّی به کار می‌رفته بدین ترتیب:
دین دفیره: دین دبیره به معنای خط دینی بوده که اوستا را با آن می‌نوشتند.
ویش دبیره: (شامل 365 حرف) که با آن اصوات و آهنگها و علائم و قیافه‌ها و تعبیر خواب را ثبت می‌کردند.
گُستج: که دارای 28 حرف بوده و با آن خط عهدنامه‌ها و اقطاعات و نام‌ها و رموز را بر انگشتر و سکه‌ها می‌نوشتند.
نیمه گستج: دارای 28 حرف بوده و علم طب و فلسفه را با آن خط می‌نوشتند.
شاه دبیره: دارای 33 حرف بوده، کتابت با این خط اختصاص به پادشاهان و خاندان سلطنتی داشته است.
راز مهریه: دارای 24 حرف بوده و سلاطین نامه‌هایی را که برای پادشاهان دیگر می‌نوشتند، از این خط استفاده می‌کردند.
راسی مهریه: این خط دارای نقطه بوده و در بیان مطالب منطقی و فلسفی به کار می‌رفته و 24 حرف داشته است.
البته لغت و کلمة الفبا، از زبان فنیقی گرفته شده و مخترع الفبا فنیقی‌ها هستند، زیرا اسم آن از دو کلمة آلفا و بتا که در زبان فنیقی اولی به معنای گاو و دومی به معنای خانه (هر دو از نظر شباهت) می‌باشد. بنابراین مخترع خط فنیقی‌ها هستند. پس از پیدایش خط برای نوشتن (غیر از بدنة کوهها و لوحه‌های گلی و سنگ نوشته‌ها) رایج‌ترین وسیله مرکّب و رنگ را از عصاره برگهای درختان، و قلم را از چوب و کاغذ را از برگ پاپیروس می‌ساختند.
خطهای رایج بعد از اسلام:
بعد از اسلام در ایران هفت نوع خط معروف وجود داشته که اگر هنرمند خوشنویسی قادر بود این هفت خط را کامل بنویسد سمت استادی داشت و او را در حد کمال و «هفت خط» می‌نامیدند.
خطهای هفت گانة اسلامی که در ایران متداول بوده و هست به ترتیب قدمت عبارت‌اند از: خط کوفی، خط محقّق و ریحان، خط ثلث، خط نسخ، خط تعلیق و دیوانی، خط نستعلیق و خط شکسته نستعلیق که رقعه را نیز باید به این جمع اضافه نمود. هر کدام از این خطها مشتقات و گونه‌های مختلف دارد.
تاریخ خط فارسی را با تاریخ تحول خط عربی همزمان می دانند زیرا با ظهور دین اسلام و گسترش آن در ایران خط عربی کوفی جایگزین خط پهلوی شد.
خط کوفی در ابتدا بدون نقطه و اعراب بود اما در سال 69 هجری قمری ابوالاسود دولی از شاگردان حضرت علی (ع) براین خط اعراب نهاد و دیگری به نام نصر بن عاصم نقطه گذاری کرد.
در اصفهان تا قرن دوم هجری خط همان خط پهلوی بود که از عهد ساسانیان رایج بود و تا سال 132 هجری قمری تغییری در خط معمول این شهر پیدا نشد.
با روی کار آمدن عباسیان و قدرت یافتن ابومسلم، برای اولین بار خط اسلامی در شهر اصفهان متداول شد و به تدریج مکاتیب عمومی از خط پهلوی به خط اسلامی تبدیل شد.
استاد همائی به نقل از این الندیم می نویسد:
مردم اصفهان در خط اسلامی به تقلید قانع نشدند و از خود خطی اختراع کردند که به نام خط اصفهانی معروف شد. این خط همانند خط کوفی مخصوص کتابت قرآن مجید بود و از این شهر به سایر مواضع راه یافته است. به نوشته مرحوم همائی کتیبه های ابنیه و عمارت عهد سلجوقی در اصفهان به همین خط است.
قرن پنجم و ششم زمان رواج خط کوفی در اصفهان است. از قرن هفتم هجری استقبال از این خط به شدت کاهش یافت. اما متروک نشد.
آخرین نمونه این نوع خط در کتیبه دور گنبد امامزاده جعفر است که تاریخ آن 725 هجری قمری است.
از اوائل قرن پنجم رواج خط نستعلیق که خط تحریری خاص ایرانی بود شروع شد و در قرن ششم و هفتم رواج کامل یافت بطوری که اکثر کتب فارسی و برخی از کتب عربی با این خط نوشته می شد.

قرن نهم هجری فن خطاطی در عداد هنرهای ظریفه درآمد و اساتید این فن نستعلیق را به اوج کمال رساندند. دوره صفویان از درخشان ترین ادوار ترقی و تکامل خطوط مختلف ایرانی بویژه ثلث، (نسخ) و (نستعلیق) است.
در این زمان بیشتر شاهان و شاهزادگان و رجال و امراء صفویه خود خوشنویس بوده اند و خطاطان و اساتید خوشنویس از احترامی ویژه برخوردار شدند و مکتب خط و خطاطی در این شهر دائر شد و این شهر در حدود 4 قرن مهد بزرگترین خطاطان و خوشنویسان شد.
در دوره صفویه اساتید بزرگی همچون امیرعلی هروی و شاگرد او باباشاه اصفهانی و میرعماد حسنی قزوینی و محمد صالح اصفهانی و نورای اصفهانی و ترابای اصفهانی و علیرضا عباسی و علی نقی امامی و محسن امامی و استاد باقر بنا و دهها استاد خوشنویس دیگر با کتابت کتیبه های بناهای اصفهان شهر اصفهان را به موزه ای از دست نبشته ها و کتیبه های نفیس تبدیل کردند.
خط نستعلیق در دوران صفویه به آنچنان جایگاهی رسید که نه تنها در ایران و افغانستان (که در آن هنگام جزئی از ایران بود) بلکه در ممالک مجاور و دور دست همچون هندوستان و عثمانی و مصر و عربستان نیز طرفدارانی پیدا کرد و اساتید بزرگی مانند میر معزکاشی نستعلیق نویس بزرگ دوران شاه عباس اول به هند سفر کرد و این خط را در آن کشور رواج داد.
با انتقال پایتخت از اصفهان اگر چه خوشنویسی دچار زوال شد اما در دوره قاجار اساتیدی ظهور کردند که بار دیگر شهر اصفهان را به عنوان مهد این هنر شریف بر سر زبانها انداختند. محمد کاظم واله اصفهانی و محمودخان ملک الشعراء در خط نسخ و درویش عبدالمجید طالقانی در خط شکسته به استادی رسیدند.
دوران صفویه زمان رونق خط ثلث نیز هست. در اوائل قرن یازدهم هجری قمری به دلیل احداث مساجد و مدارس و تعمیر امامزاده ها و بقاع متبرکه اساتیدی همچون علیرضا عباسی و عبدالباقی تبریزی و محمدرضا امامی با کتابت کتیبه های این آثار شاهکارهائی باقی گذاشتند که شهر اصفهان را در دنیا نام آور و مشهور کردند.
علاوه بر کتابت کتیبه ها، ساختن مرقَّعات و کتب نفیس نیز در این دوران به کمال رسد و خطاطان نامدار و مشهور با استنساخ کتب مذهبی و ادبی نفائسی بوجود آوردند که امروز زینت بخش موزه های دنیا هستند.
در دوره قاجار و بخصوص زمان سلطنت محمدشاه به دلیل سعی و اهتمام او بار دیگر خوشنویسی که در روزگار افشاریه و زندیه دچار رکورد شده بود مورد توجه قرار گرفت در این روزگار هنرمندانی مانند آقا محمدباقر سمسوری اصفهانی، رضا قلی ادیب، میرزا عبدالرحیم اصفهانی و چند تن از سادات گلستانه خط نستعلیق را مجدداً به اوج رساندند.
خط نسخ نیز به وسیله آقاغلامعلی اصفهانی، آقا زین العابدین اشرف الکتاب اصفهانی، آقا محمد کاظم واله و اساتید دیگر به عالیترین درجه حسن و کمال رسید.
در قرن 14 هجری خط و خطاطی اصفهان کماکان به وجود اساتید بزرگ این هنر به حیات خود ادامه می داد اما از مشروطیت به بعد روی به انحطاط و زوال نهاد.
پس از پیروزی انقلاب اسلامی فعالیت انجمن خوشنویسان در اصفهان آغاز گشت و اساتید بزرگی همچون مرحوم حبیب اله فضائلی بار دیگر در اعتلاء و ترقی این هنر گام های مثبتی برداشتند.

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امثال و حکم ; ۱٠:٢٥ ‎ق.ظ ; سه‌شنبه ٥ آذر ۱۳۸٧

پیدایش کیهان شناسی

مقدمه

کیهان شناسی مطالعه شکل ، پیدایش ، زندگی و مرگ جهان است. در آغاز قرن بیستم ، کیهان شناسان تصور می‌کردند که تمام جهان بخشی از کهکشان راه شیری است. در سال 1923، ادوین هابل ، ستاره شناس آمریکایی ، نشان داد که ستارگان سحابی آندرومدا (که بعدآ کهکشان آندرومدا نامیده شد) در خارج کهکشان راه شیری قرار دارند و بدین تریب وجود کهکشانهای دیگر را اثبات کرد. او همچنین دریافت که این کهکشانها از کهکشان ما فاصله می‌گیرند. در دهه بعد از آن ، فرضیه‌های گوناگونی درباره منشأ جهان ارائه شد.




کیهان از چه چیز ساخته شده است؟

رصدهایی که بوسیله اخترشناسان صورت می‌گیرد این نکته را مشخص ساخته که به ازای هر یک گرم از ماده‌ای که سیارات و ستارگان و کهکشانها را بوجود آورده ، چند گرم از ماده‌ای وجود دارد که ماهیت آن ناشناخته است، وجود این ماده بر اساس نوع رفتاری که اجرام کیهانی از خود آشکار می‌سازند حدس زده می‌شود. براساس قوانین فیزیک اگر آتشگردانی را با سرعت به چرخش در آوریم با سرعت در هوا به پرواز درخواهد‌ آمد.

در مورد ستارگانی که در حاشیه کهکشانها به دور مرکز در گردشند نیز دقیقاً همین وضع برقرار است. نخ یا رشته‌‌‌‌ای که این ستارگان را پایبند نگه می‌دارد همان نیروی جاذبه است. اما محاسبات نشان می‌دهد که نیروی جاذبه حاصل از ماده فیزیکی قابل رؤیت موجود در کهکشانها برای نگهداری ستارگانی که با جرم عظیم و سرعت زیاد در حاشیه آنها در حال گردشند کافی نیست.

برای نگهداری این ستارگان به صورت دیوان پای‌ در زنجیر ، به طناب یا رشته مستحکم‌تری نیاز است و از همین‌ جا دانشمندان نتیجه گرفته‌اند که در درون هر کهکشان می‌باید ذخایر عظیمی از نوعی ماده نادیدنی وجود داشته باشد که نیروی جاذبه لازم برای جلوگیری از گریز ستارگان را فراهم می‌آورد. استدلال مشابهی دلالت می‌کند بر اینکه از این نوع ماده نادیدنی می‌باید در فضای ما بین کهکشانها نیز موجود باشد و حرکات کهکشانها را نسبت به یکدیگر تنظیم کند.
پیدایش جهان

ستاره شناسان قرن بیستم توضیحات متناقضی درباره نحوه پیدایش جهان پیشنهاد نموده‌اند. ژرژ لومتر (1966-1894) ، ریاضیدان بلژیکی ، اظهار کرد که دنیا بصورت نقطه داغ متراکم منفجر شونده‌ای آغاز شد. فرد هویل ستاره شناس انگلیسی (1915) با ارائه نظریه حالت پایا ، این اندیشه را که دنیا سر آغاز داشته رد کرد. کشف تشعشع مایکروویو زمینه کیهان در سال 1965 تاییدی بر نظریه انفجار بزرگ بود.

برخی اظهار نموده‌اند که خلقت متوالی نظریه تازه‌ای وارد علم می‌نماید که نظریه بسیار حیرت انگیزی است. من معتقد نیستم که خلقت متوالی نظریه تازه‌ای پدید می‌آورد. این قطعاً فرضیه جدیدی است، ولی صرفاً جایگزین فرضیه‌ای می‌شود که در بطن فرضیه‌های کهن پنهان است. چنین ابزار می‌کند که تمام ماده جهان در زمانی خاص در گذشته‌ای دور و در "انفجاری بزرگ" ایجاد شده است. این نظریه انفجار بزرگ از لحاظ علمی از دو نظریه دیگر ناخوشایندتر است.



استماع دقیق
با تلسکوپی رادیویی ، آرنوپنزانس و رابرت ویلسون
دانشمندان آمریکایی ، تشعشع زمینه‌ای
بجای مانده از انفجار بزرگ را کشف کردند.

کیهان شناسی نوین

از جمله مسائلی که کیهان شناسی نوین به آن توجه دارد، مسئله آغاز است. این پرسش که: «آیا اساسا کیهان آغازی داشته یانه همواره موجود بوده است؟»؛ اگر چه نحوه نگرش علمی به این مسئله از ویژگیهای خاص خود برخوردار است که آن را از دیدگاههای متا فیزیکی و الهیاتی جدا می‌کند. ولی طبیعت مسئله به شکلی است که از همان ابتدا ، ارائه نظریات و مدلهای کیهان شناختی با طیف وسیعی از برداشتها و واکنشهای متا فیزیکی و الهیاتی همراه بوده است، تا آنجایی که بعضی افراد حتی آراء فلسفی و بویژه الحادی خود را در نحوه انتخاب مدلهای کیهان شناختی دخالت داده‌اند.

برخی ازخدا باوران معتقد بودند که اگر نظریه انفجار بزرگ درست باشد، به نظر می‌رسد که برای وجود آفریدگار جهان ، استدلالی قوی را پدید آورد. برخی دیگر معتقدند که این مدل به طرز شگفت انگیزی اعتقاد کتاب مقدس را درباره خلق از عدم تأیید می‌کند. درسال 1948م هرمان باندی ، توماس گلد و فردریک هویل نظریه‌ای تحت عنوان نظریه حالت پایا را ارائه کردند. طبق این نظریه که حدود دو دهه رقیب نظریه انفجار بزرگ به حساب می‌آمد، اگر کیهان تا ابد منبسط شود، دیگر لزومی به اعتقاد به لحظه آغازین نیست.

در این نظریه بیان می‌شود که نرخ این انبساط با مقدار چگالی ماده برابر و این برابری از طریق خلق مداوم ماده‌ای جدید فراهم می‌آید. این خلق مداوم باعث می‌شود تا مقدار چگالی ماده در عالم ثابت باقی بماند و با دور شدن کهکشانها از هم بین آنها کهکشانهای جدید بوجود آید و بدین سان کیهان همیشه یکنواخت به نظر می‌رسد. اما در سال 1964م دو نفر به نامهای پنزیاس و ویلسون تابش ریزموجی به نام تابش پس زمینه کیهانی را کشف کردند که مؤید عالم داغ اولیه بود و بدین ترتیب نظریه حالت پایا اعتبار خود را از دست داد.

این بی اعتباری در دهه 90 با یافته‌های سفینه کوبی در مورد ناهمیانگردی عالم داغ اولیه بیشتر شد. طرفداری متعصبانه فردریک هویل از نظریه مذکور صرفا به دلایل علمی نبود بلکه به اعتقاد او زمان بی نهایت با عقاید الحادیش بیشتر سازگار بود. استیون وینبرگ ، فیزیکدان و برنده جایزه نوبل می‌گوید: «گیرایی اصلی و جذابیت فلسفی نظریه حالت پایا از آن جهت بود که با تصویر سنتی و دینی جهان بدان گونه که در کتاب مقدس آمده ، کمتر شباهت داشت.

بنابر آنچه گفته شد حضور گرایشهای فلسفی در میان متخصصان برجسته کیهان شناسی ، حضوری جدی بوده در مواردی بر نحوه تبیین آغاز کیهان تأثیری جهت دهنده داشته است.

امثال و حکم ; ۱٠:٢٤ ‎ق.ظ ; سه‌شنبه ٥ آذر ۱۳۸٧

پیدایش عید نوروز

در باره نوروز و پیدایش آن صدها جستار و کتاب نوشته اند، اما اندک کسی به پیوند آن با تمدن بابلی پرداخته است.

بنا به اساطیر و باور سنتی، آغاز تجلیل از نوروز به پانزده هزار سال پیش برمی گردد، به روزی که جمشید شاه (ییما یا یامای هند و ایرانی) بر تخت نشست. اصطلاح "نوروز جمشیدی" از همین باور بر می آید. شاهان دوران معاصر نیز به مانند فتحعلی شاه قاجار تلاش می کردند به تقلید از جمشید در روز نوروز تاج بر سر بگذارند.

بر مبنای باور مزدیسنی، زرتشت پیامبر بود که اخترشناسی ایرانی را بنیاد نهاد و با محاسبات دقیق در کنار جشن های طبیعی سده و مهرگان، اعتدال ربیعی یا برابری بهاری شب و روز را نیز به مثابه جشن اصلی و واپسین روز از هفته آفرینش پروردگار تعیین کرد که همین نوروز است.

برخی تلاش کرده اند تا نام و نشانی از جشن نوروز را در کتیبه های هخامنشی ردیابی کنند و نوشته اند که جشن نوروز در فرمان کورش بزرگ، پایه گذار امپراتوری هخامنشی که در سال ۵۴٢ پیش از میلاد به مردمان بابل آزادی های ملی و مذهبی را ارزانی داشت، جاودانه شده است.

شاهد مثال آنها این پاره از متن کتیبه ماندگار کورش است: "زمانی که من به بابل اندر شدم... به کسی اجازه ندادم که به این سرزمین و مردم آن ستم کند... من نیاز های بابل را مد نظر داشتم و همه جایگاه های مقدس آن را و در بهزیستی آنها کوشیدم... من آنها را از بردگی ناشایسته نجات دادم. من ویرانه های آنها را آباد کردم. من به بدبختی های آنان پایان نهادم." اما در این متن ذکری از نوروز نیست.

نوروز و بابل

اما یادگار های مکتوب بازمانده از بابل باستان، به مانند کتیبه های "سنه خریب" از شاهان آشوری در "بیت اکیتی" یا جشنگاه های آشوری در این مورد تردیدی باقی نمی گذارد که در دوران مقدم بر ورود کورش بزرگ به بابل شب اعتدال روز و شب پیش بابلی ها گرامی بوده و با نام های "اکیدی" و "خاب نیسان" (اول نیسان) به عنوان سال نو از آن تجلیل می شده است.

دکتر کاوه فرخ، تاریخ نگار یونانی ایرانی تبار، می نویسد: "در زمان فتح نسبتا آرام بابل توسط کورش بزرگ (۵٣٩ پیش از میلاد) بابلی ها از دانش فوق العاده زمان شناسی برخوردار بودند. آنها دریافته بودند که ١٩ سال برابر با ٢٣۵ ماه است و بر مبنای آن از سده پنج پیش از میلاد به بعد چرخه یا سیکل هفت گانه ای را تعیین کردند که هر دوره آن ١٩ سال را دربر می گرفت... بدین گونه سال نو بابلی ها با نخستین روز ماه نیسان در آغاز بهار مصادف می شد. از این رو به نظر می آید که این تاریخ بابلی سرآغاز جشن نوروز آریایی بوده باشد."

سال ها پیش از این ویلیام آیلرز در کتاب "تاریخ ایران کمبریج" نوشته بود: "پارس ها افزون بر علم اخترشناسی بین النهرین گاهشماری آن را نیز پذیرفتند که بر مبنای آن آغاز سال با نخستین شب بهار (٢٠ مارس) مصادف می شد."

"زیباترین جشن ایران باستان (نوروز یا نوسارد) جشن سال نو بابلیان باستان بود که در آن روز مردوک، خدای بابلی ها سرنوشت نسل بشر را از نو رقم می زد... بنا به یافته های باستان شناختی، همه شهرهای بزرگ بابل و آسور دارای جشنگاه ویژه ای بودند با نام "بیت اکیتی" که بیرون از دروازه های شهر قرار داشت."

جشن سال نو بابلی ١٢ روز به درازا می کشید و هر روز آن مراسم خاص مذهبی داشت. از جمله در یکی از آن روزها روحانی ارشد بابلی شاه را به نیایشگاه مردوک می خواند و به عنوان کفاره گناهان خواسته و ناخواسته شاه در سال گذشته بر رخسار او سیلی می زد، چنان که اشک او جاری می شد.

دوازده روز جشن نوروز آریایی نیز که در آن "میر نوروزی" هم ظاهر می شد، احتمالا با این سنت بابلی ها پیوندی دارد.

از نویسندگان ایرانی هاشم رضی است که در کتاب "آیین مغان" به جشن اکیتی اشاره می کند: "اکیتو جشن کهن بابلی است که سالی دوبار در آغاز بهار و پاییز برگزار می شد و قدمت آن به موجب آگاهی هایی که داریم، به هزاره دوم پیش از میلاد می رسد و میان این جشن بابلی با نوروز ایرانی شباهت بسیاری وجود دارد."

در پی سقوط امپراتوری بابلی جشن های آن نیز میان اقوام سریانی و سومری و اکاد به تدریج متروک شد. اما دوباره در اوایل سده بیستم میلادی سریانی ها به تجلیل از سال نو باستانی خود با نام "اکیتو" پرداختند که به دلیل روی آوردن آنها به کیش مسیحیت و پذیرفتن گاهشماری گرگوری آن از شب بیستم مارس به اول آوریل منتقل شده است.

نوروز و تخت جمشید

با وجود نبود یادکرد از نوروز در نوشته های هخامنشی بیشتر تاریخ نگاران بر این باوراند که در پی اشغال بابل توسط کورش بزرگ جشن اعتدال روز و شب میان ایرانیان رایج شد و داریوش بزرگ برای برگزاری این جشن با شکوه تخت جمشید را ساخت.

ارنست هرتزفلد، ایران شناس برجسته آلمانی که نخستین حفاری علمی تخت جمشید را رهبری کرده است، بر این باور بود که داریوش آن را به عنوان نوروزگاه ساخته بود.

با اینکه پایتخت هخامنشی از پارس فرسنگ ها فاصله داشت، داریوش بزرگ به طور نمادینی بارگاه نوروزی خود را در حوالی خاستگاه دودمان هخامنشی بنیاد کرد. شاهان هخامنشی در ایام نوروز در همین محل جلوس می کردند و از اقوام مختلف قلمرو پهناورشان ارمغان های نوروزی دریافت می کردند که تصویر آن را می توان روی دیوار نگاره های تخت جمشید دید.

مایکل اکسوورتی در کتاب "امپراتوری اندیشه" می نویسد: "هدف از احداث مجتمع عظیم تخت جمشید هنوز روشن نیست. ممکن است جایگاه برگزاری جشن ها و مراسم اعتدال شب و روز در بهار باشد که همان نوروز ایرانی است. صفوف باج آوران که روی دیوارها منقش است حاکی از این احتمال است که تخت جمشید محل اعلام رسمی بیعت و وفاداری سالانه از سوی استان های ایران باستان بوده است."

احیای نوروز پس از اسکندر

نگاشته های تاریخی حاکی است که شاهان اشکانی یا پارتی، که پس از ویرانی های اسکندر، فرمانروا شدند، سنت های هخامنشیان را از نو زنده کردند و به آنها ارج گذاشتند و نوروز را گرامی داشتند.

بلاش اول، نخستین شاه اشکانی ای بود که نحوه تجلیل او از نوروز به عنوان جشن سراسری در تاریخ کهن آمده است، هرچند جزئیات آن برایمان روشن نیست.

اما از دوران ساسانی یادگارهای فراوانی بجا مانده است که جایگاه رفیع نوروز در آن زمان را آشکار می کند. نوروز ساسانی مهم ترین روز سال بود و مهم ترین امور ملی دولت نیز، به مانند بار دادن به مردم و عفو زندانیان، در همان روز انجام می گرفت.

در پی سقوط سلسله ساسانی و پیروزی تازیان بر ایران و ترویج کیش اسلام که از سال۶۵٠ میلادی آغاز گرفت، نوروز همچنان ماندگار بوده است.

به تدریج جشن های دیگر ایران باستان به مانند مهرگان و گاهنباران، مختص پیروان کیش مزدیسنی شد و تنها نوروز و سده را همگان تجلیل می کردند. سرانجام، شکوه سده هم کاهش یافت و نوروز تنها جشن باستانی ای شد که ایرانیان، صرف نظر از مذهبشان، جشن می گیرند.

ماندگاری نوروز پس از اسلام

لغتنامه دهخدا با استناد به کتاب "تمدن اسلامی" جرجی زیدان می نویسد: "در دربارهای نخستین خلفای اسلامی به نوروز اعتنائی نداشتند، ولی بعدها خلفای اموی برای افزودن درآمد خود هدایای نوروز را از نو معمول داشتند. بنی امیه هدیه در نوروز را بر مردم ایران تحمیل می کردند که در زمان معاویه تعداد آن به پنج تا ده میلیون درم بالغ می شد."

در ادامه تفسیر نوروز لغتنامه دهخدا می افزاید: "امیران ایشان (عرب ها) برای جلب منافع خود مردم را به اهداى تحف دعوت می کردند. نخستین کسی که در اسلام هدایای نوروز و مهرگان را رواج داد حجاج بن یوسف بود. اندکی بعد این رسم نیز از طرف عمر بن عبدالعزیز به عنوان گران آمدن اهداى تحف بر مردم منسوخ گردید."

اما با ظهور ابو مسلم خراسانی و روی کار آمدن خلافت عباسی و تشکیل سلسله های طاهریان و صفاریان و سامانیان جشن های ایرانی و به ویژه نوروز دوباره رونق یافتند و تا به روزگار ما رسیدند.


امثال و حکم ; ۱٠:٢۳ ‎ق.ظ ; سه‌شنبه ٥ آذر ۱۳۸٧

Khaled Hosseini


Hosseini was born in Kabul where his father worked for the Afghanistan Foreign Ministry. In 1970, Hosseini and his family moved to Tehran, Iran, where his father worked for the Embassy of Afghanistan. In 1973, Hosseini's family returned to Kabul, and Hosseini's youngest brother was born in July of that year. Several months later, the former king of Afghanistan, Zahir Shah, was ousted from power in a bloodless coup that was orchestrated by Zahir's cousin, Daoud Khan.
In 1976, Hosseini's father obtained a job in Paris, France and moved the family there. They chose not to return to Afghanistan because communists had seized power through a bloody coup. Instead, in 1980 they sought political asylum in the United States and made their residence in San Jose, California.
Hosseini graduated from Independence High School in San Jose in 1984 and enrolled at Santa Clara University, where he earned a bachelor's degree in biology in 1988. The following year, he entered the University of California, San Diego, School of Medicine, where he earned his M.D. in 1993. He completed his residency in internal medicine at Cedars-Sinai Medical Center in Los Angeles in 1996. He practiced medicine until a year and a half after the release of The Kite Runner.
Hosseini is currently a Goodwill Envoy for the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR). He lives in Northern California with his Persian-American (Tajik) wife, Roya, and their two children.

امثال و حکم ; ۱٠:۱٧ ‎ق.ظ ; سه‌شنبه ٥ آذر ۱۳۸٧

The kite Runner

The kite runner
By Khaled Hosseini
Published by Qanita, 2006
ISBN 9793269464, 9789793269467
616 pages

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امثال و حکم ; ٩:٤٥ ‎ق.ظ ; سه‌شنبه ٥ آذر ۱۳۸٧

Famous Science Fiction/Fantasy Authors

Famous Science Fiction/Fantasy Authors

Related pages:
Criteria used to determine fame - Lists of the best, favorite, best-selling, etc. SF/F authors and writing
Other SF/F Authors of Various Faiths (more)
Religion References in Science Fiction Database
SF/F Authors Who are Major Characters in Feature Films
Famous Actors Who have Written Science Fiction

This list is an attempt to list the most famous and influential science fiction/fantasy writers. Although this list certainly includes the giants of the field, such as Asimov, Heinlein, Card, and Clarke, it does not necessarily include all writers of outstanding literary merit. Some of the "famous" science fiction and fantasy writers on this list may be included because they have been particularly prolific or have had significant influence on the field.
Obviously this is a somewhat subjective list, but a large variety of resources have been consulted: awards lists, historical commentaries, university literature course materials, best seller lists, internet portals and other web sites, etc. Most of these references have been summarized on the Famous Science Fiction Authors: Criteria Lists page.

A few people are included on this list because they are very famous and they have written science fiction/fantasy, but they aren't necessarily famous primarily for their SF/F writing. The authors in this category are Carl Sagan, Anne Perry, G. K. Chesterton, Stephen King, George Lucas, Deepak Chopra, Glen A. Larson, J. Michael Straczynski and Andrew Greeley.

The primary criteria for inclusion on this list has been fame and influence, not literary merit. Few people would rank the science fiction novels of Carl Sagan or George Lucas on the same level as those of C. J. Cherryh or Gene Wolfe, but Sagan and Lucas are much more well known to the general public, outside the SF/F audience.

Book titles shown in Typewriter font face are on in the Modern Library Board's "Readers' Survey of the Best 100 Novels of the Century." Books and stories in bold have won Hugo awards. Books and stories in purple have won Nebula awards. World Fantasy Awards are in green. Locus awards are in red. "B-a-M reviews" indicate how many entries there are for this author in the SF/F Book-A-Minute series, as of Nov. 29, 1999.

Authors which have not won Hugo, Nebula or World Fantasy awards are not necessarily less talented or less significant than other authors. Some of these authors pre-date contemporary awards, but are major figures in the development of the field: Mary Shelley, H.G. Wells, Jules Verne, etc. Some authors may not have won major awards, but are very widely read.

Adams, Douglas
Alexander, Lloyd
Anderson, Poul
Anthony, Piers
Asimov, Isaac
Baum, L. Frank
Bear, Greg
Blish, James
Bova, Ben
Bradley, Marion Zimmer
Bradbury, Ray
Brin, David
Brooks, Terry
Bujold, Lois McMaster
Burroughs, Edgar Rice
Capek, Karel
Card, Orson Scott
Cherryh, C. J.
Chesterton, G.K.
Chopra, Deepak
Clarke, Arthur C.
Crichton, Michael
Davidson, Avram Dick, Philip K.
Ellison, Harlan
Farmer, Philip Jose
Foster, Alan Dean
Gibson, William
Greeley, Andrew
Heinlein, Robert A.
Henderson, Zenna
Herbert, Frank
Hickman, Tracy
Hubbard, L. Ron
Jordan, Robert
King, Stephen
L'Engle, Madeleine
Larson, Glen A.
Le Guin, Ursula K.
Leiber, Fritz
Lem, Stanislaw
Lewis, C. S.
Lucas, George
McCaffrey, Anne
Niven, Larry
Orwell, George Perry, Anne
Pohl, Frederik
Rice, Anne
Robinson, Kim Stanley
Roddenberry, Gene
Sagan, Carl
Shelley, Mary
Silverberg, Robert
Simmons, Dan
Smith, Cordwainer
Stapledon, Olaf
Stephenson, Neal
Straczynski, J. Michael
Sturgeon, Theodore
Tolkien, J.R.R.
Turtledove, Harry
Verne, Jules
Vonnegut, Jr., Kurt
Miller, Jr., Walter M.
Wells, H.G.
Willis, Connie
Wolfe, Gene
Wolverton, Dave
Zelazny, Roger
Name Religious
Affiliation Representative Works / Notes
Douglas Adams Anglican; Agnostic; Atheist [1 B-a-M review] Hitchhiker's "Trilogy" (Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy [Ranked 88th in the Internet Top 100 Survey, Cooke, Oct. 1999. Hitchhiker's was ranked 10th in Amazon.com's Best SF/F Books of the Century; Ranked 6th at SF Vote]; The Restaurant at the End of the Universe; Life, the Universe and Everything; So Long, and Thanks for All the Fish; Mostly Harmless); Dirk Gently's Holistic Detective Agency. Hitchhiker's Guide was adapted to big-budget movie (2005), and was previously written by Adams for popular radio and TV adaptations.
Lloyd Alexander Christian (denomination unknown) [3 B-a-M reviews]; The Black Cauldron (Newbery Medal Honor; Child's Study Association for America's Children's Books of the Year); Taran Wanderer; (School Library Journal's Best Book of the Year); The High King (Newbery Medal; Child's Study Association for America's Children's Books of the Year; National Book Award Finalist; American Book Award Finalist for Fiction); Westmark (American Book Award); The Kestrel (American Book Award Nominee); The Fortune-tellers (Boston Globe-Horn Book Award); The Wizard in the Tree; August Bondi: Border Hawk (Nat'l Jewish Book Award); plus other awards.
Poul Anderson agnostic The Saturn Game (1982); Hunter's Moon (1979); Goat Song (1973); Operation Luna; Operation Chaos; Fire Time; The Boat of a Million Years; The Day of Their Return; The Devil's Game; The Fleet of Stars; Harvest of Stars; Harvest the Fire; Inconstant Star; A Knight of Ghosts and Shadows; No Truce with Kings; The Queen of Air and Darkness (1972); The Sharing of Flesh (1969); "No Truce with Kings" (1964); "The Longest Voyage" (1961); The Shield of Time; Starfarers; The Stars Are Also Fire; War of the Gods; The Gods Laughed; Anderson was ranked 12th on the ISFDB Top 100 Authors list.
Piers Anthony Quaker; agnostic [4 B-a-M reviews] Xanth series; Tarot series; A Spell for Chameleon [Ranked 71st in ISFDB Top 100 Novels]; Macroscope; Omnivore trilogy; Battle Circle trilogy
Isaac Asimov Jewish; Humanist; atheist [4 B-a-M reviews] Asimov is one of history's most prolific authors, and has published in nearly every conceivable field. Foundation series (Hugo, 1966), including Foundation's Edge (1983) [Ranked 75th in ISFDB Top 100 Novels. The Foundation Trilogy was ranked 60th in the Internet Top 100 Survey, Cooke, Oct. 1999. Foundation was ranked 9th in Amazon.com's Best SF/F Books of the Century; Ranked 2nd by at SF Vote.]; Robots novels (including The Caves of Steel, which was ranked 11th at SF Vote, and I, Robot, ranked 25th); The Stars Like Dust; Nightfall; Asimov: A Memoir; "Gold" (1992); Foundation's Edge (1983); "The Bicentennial Man" (1977); The Gods Themselves (1973) [Ranked 14th at SF Vote. Ranked 33rd in ISFDB Top 100 Novels]; The Mule (1946)
L. Frank Baum Theosophist Influential writer of "Oz" series (children's novels), whose writing has spawned numerous film, TV and stage adaptations, including The Wizard of Oz (1939), one of most popular and widely-seen movies ever made. Oz books Baum wrote are: The Wonderful Wizard of Oz; The Marvelous Land of Oz; Ozma of Oz; Dorothy and the Wizard in Oz; The Road to Oz; The Emerald City of Oz; The Patchwork Girl of Oz; Tik-Tok of Oz; The Scarecrow of Oz; Rinkitink in Oz; The Lost Princess of Oz; The Tin Woodman of Oz; The Magic of Oz; Glinda of Oz. Other authors later continued series, eventually leading to the "Famous Forty" books which are considered "canonical." Baum's non-Oz fantasy books include: Dot and Tot of Merryland; American Fairy Tales; The Master Key: An Electric Fairy Tale; The Life and Adventures of Santa Claus; The Magical Monarch of Mo; The Enchanted Island of Yew; Queen Zixi of Ix; John Dough and the Cherub; The Sea Fairies; Sky Island. Other books include: The Maid of Arran (play); The Book of Hamburgs (poultry guide); By the Candelabra's Glare (poetry); Mother Goose in Prose; Father Goose: His Book; The Army Alphabet; The Navy Alphabet; Songs of Father Goose; The Art of Decorating Dry Goods Windows and Interiors.
Greg Bear believes in God Moving Mars; Heads; Star Wars: Rogue Planet; Eon; The Forge of God; "Tangents" (1987); "Blood Music" (1984); "Hardfought" (1983); Sideways Award for Dinosaur Summer (1998) [also won 1999 Endeavour Award]; Darwin's Radio [On Publishers Weekly's "Best Books 99" list; nominated for Hugo award.] Has won Campbell 1st and 2nd place awards for: Blood Music; Queen of Angels; Moving Mars; and Slant.
Ben Bova atheist [Beyond Bova's considerable body of writing, he is well known as one of the best, most influential SF editors of the last few decades of the 20th century. He has won 6 Hugo awards in the Professional Editor" category.]; [1 B-a-M review] Return To Mars; Moonwar; Moonrise; Mars; Brothers; Orion Among the Stars. Non-fiction: Immortality; Welcome to Moonbase; Assured Survival
James Blish atheist / Anglican A Case of Conscience (1959. This is one of the main classics in religious sf.); Cities in Flight; The Seedling Stars; large body of Star Trek scripts, novels and stories; "Surface Tension"; "Common Time"; "How Beautiful with Banners"; Earthman Come Home
Marion Zimmer Bradley Episcopalian Mists of Avalon (#15 on Amazon.com's list of the "25 Best Science Fiction and Fantasy Books of the Century"); Darkover series; The Colors of Space; Tiger Burning Bright; many more books; Founder of her own popular fantasy magazine.
Ray Bradbury raised Baptist; Unitarian Universalist [1 B-a-M review] Martian Chronicles [Ranked 14th in Amazon.com's Best SF/F Books of the Century; Ranked 19th by SF Vote]; Farenheit 451 [Ranked 8th in Amazon.com's Best SF/F Books of the Century; Ranked 15th at SF Vote]; Something Wicked This Way Comes [Ranked 44th in the Internet Top 100 Survey, Cooke, Oct. 1999.]; 1977 World Fantasy Life Achievement Award
David Brin Jewish background Startide Rising (1984) [Also: Locus Award. Ranked 21st by SF Vote]; The Uplift War (1988); Earth; The Postman (1985) [Won 1st place Campbell Award. Made into the 1997 feature film directed by and starring Kevin Costner. Won commendation from the American Library Association.]; Sundiver; The Practice Effect; Heart of the Comet; Earth; Glory Season; Otherness (anthology); "The Crystal Spheres"; Brightness Reef; Infinity's Shore; Transparent Society; Heaven's Reach; Foundation's Triumph; Some of these novels have received Nebula, Hugo, or Locus nominations without winning.
Terry Brooks ? [6 B-a-M reviews]; Shannara series [The Sword of Shannara (1977) was the first work of fiction to appear on the New York Times trade paperback bestseller list, remaining there for five months.]; "Magic Kingdom Of Landover" series (including Magic Kingdom For Sale--Sold!); Witches' Brew; A Knight of the Word; Running With the Demon; best-selling novelization of Star Wars Episode 1: The Phantom Menace; novelization of movie Hook
Lois McMaster Bujold ? [Bujold has won more Best Novel Hugo awards than anybody except Heinlein.] The Vor Game; Barrayar; Mirror Dance; Falling Free; "The Mountains of Mourning"; "Weatherman" (Nebula nominee); Memory (Nebula nominee)
Edgar Rice Burroughs ? Mars Series (A Princess of Mars; The Gods of Mars; etc.); Venus Series; Earth's Core series; Tarzan books
Karel Capek Catholic; Pragmatist Celebrated Czech novelist, journalist, essayist, playwright. Famous for R.U.R., early s.f. story that coined the word "robot."
Orson Scott Card Latter-day Saint [3 B-a-M reviews] Ender Wiggins Series (Ender's Game, 1986 [Ranked 7th in Amazon.com's Best SF/F Books of the Century; Ranked 1st by SF Vote as the best SF novel of all time. Ranked 93rd in ISFDB Top 100 Novels; Ranked 32nd in Amazon.com's "Best Books of the Millennium" poll (covering all types of books, not just SF/F).]; Speaker for the Dead [also Locus award; Ranked 51st in ISFDB Top 100 Novels; 3rd place Campbell Award in 1987], [The Ender series was ranked 2nd in the Internet Top 100 Survey, Cooke, Oct. 1999.], 1987; Xenocide [Hugo nominee. Received the AML Award for best novel in 1991.]; Children of the Mind; Ender's Shadow [On Publishers Weekly's "Best Books 99" list]); Shadow of the Hegemon; Alvin Maker series (including Seventh Son, 1988 [Ranked 10th in ISFDB Top 100 Novels]; Red Prophet, 1989 [Ranked 97th in ISFDB Top 100 Novels]; Prentice Alvin, 1990; Alvin Journeyman, 1996; Heartfire [The Grand Prix de l'Imaginaire (the highest sf/f award in France) chose Heartfire as the "Best Foreign Novel," year 2000: award applied to all five "Tales of Alvin Maker" novels.]); Homecoming series (5 vol.: Memory of Earth; etc.); Pastwatch: The Redemption of Christopher Columbus (runner up, 1996 Sideways Awards; won Israel's Geffen Award); Enchantment; Slow Leak; Lost Boys; The Abyss; Sarah ("Women of the Old Testament" series); Songmaster; Hart's Hope; Saints; Wyrms; Treason; How to Write Science Fiction and Fantasy (1991); "Eye for Eye" (1988); "Hatrack River" (1987); "Unaccompanied Sonata" (Hugo nominee, 1980); "Mikal's Songbird" (Hugo nominee); Dogwalker; many other works not listed here. Card was ranked 6th on the ISFDB Top 100 Authors list.
C. J. Cherryh ? Cyteen (1989) [Ranked 31st in ISFDB Top 100 Novels]; Downbelow Station (1982); "Cassandra" (1979); Campbell Award 1977; [Chanur's Homecoming was ranked 67th in the Internet Top 100 Survey, Cooke, as of Oct. 1999.]; Cherryh was ranked 19th on the ISFDB Top 100 Authors list.
G.K. Chesterton Catholic [NOTE: Chesterton was not primarily known as a science fiction/fantasy writer, but much of his work is classified as SF/F.] The Man Who Knew Too Much; Manalive; The Oracle of the Dog; How I Found the Superman; The Shop Of Ghosts. Some of his non-fiction works: Heretics; Orthodoxy [In 1999 Orthodoxy was in the Top 10 of the Harper-Collins list of 100 Best Spiritual Books of the Century.]; What's Wrong With the World; The Everlasting Man; St. Thomas Aquinas; The Catholic Church and Conversion
Deepak Chopra Hindu Chopra is famous as a health/spirituality/wellness guru who promotes Indian/Hindu techniques and philosophies. He has written many books about those subjects. Little known is the fact that he has authored one mainstream fantasy novel, The Return of Merlin (1995), in which Merlin and King Arthur's Camelot suddenly appear in contemporary times.
Arthur C. Clarke atheist, Deist or agnostic [2 B-a-M reviews] 2001: A Space Oddysey (1969 Hugo for Best Dramatic Presentation); 2010 (1985 Hugo for Best Dramatic Presentation); Transit of Earth, Fountains of Paradise [Ranked 60th in ISFDB Top 100 Novels], Childhood's End [ranked 12th at SF Vote]; The Fountains of Paradise (1980) ; Rendezvous with Rama (1974) [also Locus award; ranked 4th at SF Vote; Ranked 9th in ISFDB Top 100 Novels; Campbell Award 1st place]; "The Star" (1956); "A Meeting With Medusa" (1972); [The City and the Stars was ranked 85th in the Internet Top 100 Survey, Cooke, as of Oct. 1999.]; Runner up in 1998 Sideways Awards for "The Wire Continuum"; "The Nine Billion Names of God"
Michael Crichton believes in God [NOTE: Crichton is such a successful novelist, and has published so successfully in the non-genre press, that he is rarely labeled a "science fiction writer". Yet many of his novels are clearly science fiction, regardless of how they may have been marketed.]; [2 B-a-M reviews]; A Case of Need; Airframe; Congo; Jurassic Park (1994 Hugo for Best Dramatic Presentation); Disclosure; Eaters of the Dead; Lost World; Sphere; Rising Sun; The Andromeda Strain; The Great Train Robbery
Avram Davidson Orthodox Jew; Tenrikyo [Primarily recognized for short fiction. He was an influential editor of The Magazine of Fantasy & Science Fiction from 1962 to 1965. During his tenure, the magazine received a Hugo Award in 1963] "Or All the Seas With Oysters" (Hugo 1958). "Help! I Am Dr. Morris Goldpepper"; "In Brass Valley"; "Pebble in Time" (alternative history about the Latter-day Saints settling in the San Francisco valley instead of Utah). Rogue Dragon (Nebula nominee); Won an Edgar award (for mystery) for "The Affair at Lahore Cantonment". Masters of the Maze; Joyleg; Vergil in Averno; Ursus of Ultima Thule; The Phoenix and the Mirror; The Island Under the Earth; Peregrine: Secundus;"The Boss in the Wall" (1998 Nebula Nominee); "The Necessity of His Condition" (Queen's Award); Clash of Star-Kings (Nebula nominee); The Enquiries of Doctor Eszterhazy (1975); "Naples" (1978) Recipient of the 1975 Lifetime Achievement Award of the World Fantasy Convention. Anderson was ranked 83rd on the ISFDB Top 100 Authors list.
Philip K. Dick Episcopalian [1 B-a-M review] The Man in the High Castle (1963); Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep? (The movie Blade Runner, based on this story, won the 1983 Hugo for Best Dramatic Presentation); Radio Free Albemuth; The Transmigration of Timothy Archer; The Divine Invasion; VALIS; "Second Variety" (made into movie Screamers); "We Can Remember it for You Wholesale" (made into movie Total Recall); 1967 British SF Award for The Three Stigmata of Palmer Eldritch; Flow My Tears, The Policeman Said (Campbell Award 1st place in 1975); and the 1979 British SF Award for A Scanner Darkly (also won Campbell Award 3rd place); [Ubik was ranked 48th in the Internet Top 100 Survey, Cooke, as of Oct. 1999. Ranked 24th in Amazon.com's Best SF/F Books of the Century]
Harlan Ellison Jewish background; atheist [1 B-a-M review] Deathbird Stories; Strange Wine; Approaching Oblivion; "'Repent, Harlequin!' Said the Ticktockman" (1966); "City on the Edge of Forever" (Star Trek, 1968. Hugo Award for best dramatic presentation); "I Have No Mouth, and I Must Scream" (1968); "The Beast That Shouted Love at the Heart of the World" (1969); "Adrift Just Off the Islets of Langerhans" (1975); "Paladin of the Lost Hour" (1986); "Jeffty Is Five" (1977/1978); "The Deathbird" (1974); "A Boy and His Dog (1969); Angry Candy (1989); Slippage (1997); 1993 World Fantasy Life Achievement Award; [Dangerous Visions was ranked 46th in the Internet Top 100 Survey, Cooke, as of Oct. 1999.]; Ellison was ranked 9th on the ISFDB Top 100 Authors list.
Philip Jose Farmer Catholic background; secular humanist Riverworld series; Dayworld; Jesus on Mars; To Your Scattered Bodies Go (1972) [Ranked 53rd in ISFDB Top 100 Novels]; "Riders of the Purple Wage" (1968)
Alan Dean Foster ? [2 B-a-M reviews] Cyber Way; Short story collections: With Friends Like These, Who Needs Enemies?, and The Metrognome; Splinter of the Mind's Eye
William Gibson ? Neuromancer (1985) [Ranked 1st in ISFDB Top 100 Novels; Ranked 16th in Amazon.com's Best SF/F Books of the Century; Campbell Award 3rd place]; Count Zero [Ranked 88th in ISFDB Top 100 Novels]; Mona Lisa Overdrive [Ranked 22nd in ISFDB Top 100 Novels]; Burning Chrome; Virtual Light [Ranked 35th in ISFDB Top 100 Novels]; The Difference Engine [Ranked 48th in ISFDB Top 100 Novels; Campbell Award 2nd place in 1992]
Andrew Greeley Catholic [NOTE: Greeley's fame is not primarily as a science fiction writer, but as a sociologist, journalist, outspoken parish priest, and writer of non-sf/f.] An Epidemic of Joy; Angel Light; Blackie At The Sea; Happy are the Oppressed; Irish Lace; Irish Gold; Irish Whiskey; Summer at the Lake; White Smoke; Windows: A Prayer Journal; Contract with an Angel; Starbright; A Midwinter's Tale
Robert A. Heinlein raised Baptist; atheist [2 B-a-M reviews] Citizen of the Galaxy; Double Star (1956); Starship Troopers (1960); Stranger in a Strange Land (1962) [Ranked 23rd in Amazon.com's Best SF/F Books of the Century. Ranked 15th in ISFDB Top 100 Novels; Ranked 31st in the Amazon.com Millennium Poll.]; The Door Into Summer; The Moon is a Harsh Mistress (1967) [Ranked 16th in the Internet Top 100 Survey, Cooke, Oct. 1999. 3 other works were on this list. Ranked 5th at SF Vote. 3 other works were in the top 25 at SF Vote. Ranked 43rd in ISFDB Top 100 Novels]; The Puppet Masters; Job: A Comedy of Justice (1985)
Zenna Henderson Latter-day Saint; Methodist [Arizona teacher/writer.] Author of dozens of stories (most now found in collections still in print): The Anything Box; Holding Wonder; The People: No Different Flesh; Pilgrimage: The Book of the People. "The People" (a television movie starring William Shatner), was based on her series. Also, Disney's "Escape to Witch Mountain" movies are attributed to Henderson and/or Key. Among her dozens of People stories are "Ad Astra"; "Angels Unawares"; "Ararat"; "Come On, Wagon!"; "Crowning Glory"; "Gilead"; "Jordan"; "Pottage"; and "Captivity" (1959 Hugo Nominee). [Web site]
Frank Herbert Catholic; Zen Buddhism [3 B-a-M reviews] Dune series (including Dune, [The Dune series was ranked 6th in the Internet Top 100 Survey, Cooke, Oct. 1999. Dune was ranked 6th in Amazon.com's Best SF/F Books of the Century, and ranked 3rd at SF Vote. Ranked 29th in ISFDB Top 100 Novels. Ranked 14th in Amazon.com's Millennium Poll.], 1966)
Tracy Hickman Latter-day Saint [4 B-a-M reviews] Dragonlance series (With Margaret Weis; Over 12 million sold worldwide. Bestsellers on New York Times, Locus, Walden and B. Dalton, Publishers Weekly lists); Requiem of Stars; The Immortals; Deathgate Cycle series (with Margaret Weis); Starcraft no. 3: Speed of Darkness; The Bronze Canticles; Darksword series (New York Times Best Seller)
L. Ron Hubbard founder of Scientology [Created the Writers of the Future Contest. Had over 100 million books in print when he died. Official website: http://www.lronhubbard.org] Battlefield Earth (1982 Golden Scroll Award); Mission Earth series; Fear; Typewriter in the Sky; The End Is Not Yet; The Kingslayer; Return to Tomorrow; Ole Doc Methuselah (1992 Golden Scroll Award)
Robert Jordan ? [Real name: James Oliver Rigney, Jr.]; [4 B-a-M reviews]; Historical novels (under name Reagan O'Neal): The Fallon Blood, the Fallon Pride, the Fallon Legacy. Sequels to Robert Howard's Conan the Barbarian series. Wheels of Time fantasy series (Eye of the World; The Great Hunt; The Dragon Reborn; The Shadow Rising; The Fires of Heaven; Lord of Chaos; A Crown of Swords; etc.)
Stephen King Methodist NOTE: King is normally classified a horror writer, although much of his work could certainly be classified as science fiction/fantasy. He is said to have created his own genre. Major books include: It [Ranked 73rd in ISFDB Top 100 Novels]; The Stand [Ranked 6th in Amazon.com's Millennium Poll]; Bag of Bones. Danse Macabre (Hugo for non-fiction, 1982); "The Man in the Black Suit" (1995); King was ranked 15th on the ISFDB Top 100 Authors list.
Glen A. Larson Latter-day Saint [NOTE: Larson is famous primarily as the creator of the movie and TV series "Battlestar Galactica", and other shows such as "Knight Rider", "Automan", "Buck Rogers in the 25th Century", "Manimal", "The Six Million Dollar Man" and "Night Man". He produced many non-SF shows, including "Magnum P.I.", One West Waikiki", "The Fall Guy", "B.J. and the Bear", "The Hardy Boys Mysteries", "Quincy, M.E.", and "The Virginian" (later named "The Men from Shiloh"). Larson's work as a SF/F novelist is less well-known.] Books: Battlestar Galactica series (including the New York Times-best selling novelization of the pilot/movie, as well as: Apollo's War; The Cylon Death Machine; Experiment in Terra; The Living Legend, etc.); Knight Rider series (including Knight Rider; Hearts of Stone; Trust Doesn't Rust); The Hardy Boys and Nancy Drew Meet Dracula (Made into a film in 1977.)
Madeleine L'Engle Anglican A Wrinkle in Time (winner of the Newbery Award); A Wind in the Door; A Swiftly Tilting Planet (other books in same universe: The O'Keefe Family Series; The Austin Family Series and more); Ilsa; The Journey with Jonah; The Sphinx at Dawn; 1997 World Fantasy Life Achievement Award
Ursula K. Le Guin Taoist; Feminist [1 B-a-M review] The Left Hand of Darkness (1970) [Ranked 13th in Amazon.com's Best SF/F Books of the Century; Ranked 25th in ISFDB Top 100 Novels]; Earthsea Trilogy (A Wizard of Earthsea was ranked 84th in the Internet Top 100 Survey, Cooke, Oct. 1999.)); Tehanu: The Last Book of Earthsea, 1990 [Ranked 86th in ISFDB Top 100 Novels; World Fantasy Award]; Three Hainish Novels; "Buffalo Gals, Won't You Come Out Tonight" (1988; also World Fantasy Award); The Dispossessed (1975) [also Locus award], [Ranked 94th in the Internet Top 100 Survey, Cooke, as of Oct. 1999. Ranked 6th in ISFDB Top 100 Novels; 1975 Campbell Award 2nd place]; "The Ones Who Walk Away from Omelas" (1974); "The Word for World Is Forest" (1973); "The Day Before the Revolution" (1974); "Solitude" (1995); "Foregiveness Day" (1995 Sturgeon Award); The Lathe of Heaven (1972) [Ranked 64th in ISFDB Top 100 Novels]; Le Guin was ranked 2nd on the ISFDB Top 100 Authors list.
Stanislaw Lem Catholic; atheist Acclaimed Polish author, many of whose novels and stories have been adapted to film, including Solaris; One Human Minute; "Victim of the Brain"; "Hospital of the Transfiguration". Other books include: Eden; The Astronauts; The Chain of Chance; The Cyberiad; Fiasco; The Futurological Congress; Golem XIV; Eyewitness Account; The Investigation; The Magellan Nebula; Peace on Earth; Mortal Engines; The Star Diaries; Tales of Pirx the Pilot; etc.
Fritz Leiber Jewish; Freya's Folk (Neo-Pagan) World Fantasy Lifetime Achievement Award; Hugo/Nebula winners: The Big Time; The Wanderer; Gonna Roll the Bones; Ill Met in Lankhmar; Catch That Zeppelin!; Ship of Shadows; Our Lady of Darkness; Hugo/Nebula/World Fantasy nominees: Rump-Titty-Titty-Tum-Tah-Tee; A Deskful of Girls; Scylla's Daughter; The Unholy Grail; Stardock; The Good New Days; Four Ghosts in Hamlet; Cyclops; Answering Service; Midnight by the Morphy Watch; Belsen Express; Dark Wings; A Rite of Spring; The Button Molder; Horrible Imaginings; Heroes and Horrors; The Leiber Chronicles: Fifty Years of Fritz Leiber. Numerous other stories, novels, collections.
C. S. Lewis Anglican [7 B-a-M review] Space Trilogy; The Narnia Chronicles [The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe was ranked 71st in the Internet Top 100 Survey, Cooke, as of Oct. 1999.]; The Screwtape Letters; The Great Divorce; The Dark Tower and Other Stories. [In 1999 Mere Christianity and the Chronicles of Narnia were both in the Harper-Collins list of 100 Best Spiritual Books of the Century.]
George Lucas Buddhist Methodist Lucas is certainly not famous as an author, but as a moviemaker and story-teller. He is included on this list as the originator of the stories and screenplays behind the Star Wars films, although he was not the actual author of the novelizations. Star Wars won the 1987 Hugo for Best Dramatic Presentation. The Empire Strikes Back won in 1981 and The Return of the Jedi won in 1984. Lucas has also written Shadow Moon and Shadow Star, with Chris Claremont. Regardless of how he is judged as an author, Lucas's tremendous impact on film, science fiction, and pop culture is undeniable.
Anne McCaffrey lapsed Catholic [1 B-a-M review] Pern series (including The White Dragon, 1973 [Ranked 17th in ISFDB Top 100 Novels]; "Weyr Search", 1968; Dragonrider, 1968; Dragondrums won the Balrog award in 1980. All the Weyrs of Pern was ranked 13th in ISFDB Top 100 Novels. The Dolphins of Pern was ranked 68th in ISFDB Top 100 Novels; Dragonsdawn, Campbell Award 3rd place in 1989); Crystal Singer novels
Walter M. Miller, Jr. Catholic A Canticle for Leibowitz (Hugo Award, 1961) [Ranked 2nd in Amazon.com's Best SF/F Books of the Century; Ranked 22nd by SF Vote. Link: an academic study guide to Canticle, from Washington State University.]; "The Darfsteller" (1955)
Larry Niven agnostic [2 B-a-M reviews] Known Space Series (Ringworld Books, including Ringworld [also Locus award; Ranked 17th at SF Vote; Ranked 3rd in ISFDB Top 100 Novels], 1970/1971; Gil Hamilton Books; World of Ptavvs; Neutron Star; All the Myriad Ways; The Integral Trees (1985); The Smoke Ring); Limits; The Magic May Return; More Magic; "The Borderland of Sol" (1976); "The Hole Man" (1975); "Inconstant Moon" (1972); "Neutron Star" (1967); [Neutron Star, a compilation of stories, was ranked 64th in the Internet Top 100 Survey, Cooke, as of Oct. 1999.]; The Mote in God's Eye [Ranked 13th at SF Vote]
George Orwell ? [1 B-a-M review] 1984 [Ranked 1st in Amazon.com's Best SF/F Books of the Century; Ranked 10th at SF Vote. Ranked 10th in Amazon.com's Millennium Poll]; Animal Farm (1946)
Anne Perry Latter-day Saint [NOTE: Perry is not famous as a science fiction/fantasy writer, but as one of the world's best-selling mystery writers. Her most famous characters are Thomas Pitt, William Monk and the Crimean nurse Hester Latterley. She is also famous for her involvement in one of New Zealand's most famous real life murder cases, which was made into director Peter Jackson's 1995 film Heavenly Creatures, starring Titanic star Kate Winslet as a young Perry.] The Cater Street Hangman (based on her novel) was nominated in the "Best Television Feature/Mini-Series" category of the Edgars. The Sins of the Wolf received the AML Award for best novel in 1994. So far, Perry's only published SF/F is the fantasy epic Tathea (winner of the 1999 AML best novel award). website
Frederik Pohl Unitarian; secular humanist [Through the 1960's Pohl became the best editor in SF. Editor of both Galaxy and If.] Heechee series; "Fermi and Frost" (1986); Gateway (1977/1978. Also Campbell Award 1st place) ; [Also Locus award. Ranked 14th in ISFDB Top 100 Novels]; "The Meeting" (1973); Man Plus (1976. Also won Campbell Award 2nd place); The Coming of the Quantum Cats; Outnumbering the Dead; Search the Sky; Wolfbane; "Quaker Cannon"; Years of the City (Campbell Award 1st place 1985). Pohl was ranked 17th on the ISFDB Top 100 Authors list.; Made a grand master of SF by the Science Fiction and Fantasy Writers of America in 1992.
Anne Rice Catholic Best known for her gothic vampire novels, particularly those featuring the vampire named Lestat; e.g. Interview with a Vampire; non-sf works include Christ the Lord: Out of Egypt
Kim Stanley Robinson Buddhist [self-described Buddhist] Red Mars; Green Mars; Blue Mars; The Wild Shore; The Gold Coast; Pacific Edge; Forty Signs of Rain; Fifty Degrees Below; Icehenge; The Memory of Whiteness; A Short, Sharp Shock; Antarctica; The Years of Rice and Salt. 24 Hugo/Nebula nominations, incl. 5 wins
Gene Roddenberry Baptist; Humanist Author or co-author of novels Star Trek: The Motion Picture (1979); Great Birds of the Galaxy (1992); Star Trek: The God-Thing (1995); The Star Trek Readers I thru IV (w/ James Blish); The Star Trek Scriptbooks: The Q Chronicles. Editor of anthology Best of Star Trek (1992). Best known not for prose fiction, but as writer/creator/producer of the immensely popular and influential "Star Trek" TV series and movie franchise, as well as the spin-off series "Star Trek: The Next Generation." Subsequent series based on his characters and fictional future universe include "Star Trek: Deep Space Nine", "Star Trek: Voyager" and "Star Trek: Enterprise." Other series he wrote or produced for include: Andromeda; Alias Smith and Jones; The Lieutenant; G.E. True; Target: The Corruptors; Dr. Kildare; The Detectives Starring Robert Taylor; The DuPont Show with June Allyson; Bat Masterson; Naked City; Alcoa Theatre; Have Gun - Will Travel; Boots and Saddles; West Point; The Kaiser Aluminum Hour; Dr. Christian; Highway Patrol; Jane Wyman Presents The Fireside Theatre; Mr. District Attorney; Gruen Guild Playhouse.
Carl Sagan agnostic [1 B-a-M review] NOTE: Sagan is not primarily famous as a science fiction writer, but as an astronomer. His best known science fiction novel is Contact (1985), which was made into the movie that won the 1998 Hugo award for best dramatic presentation. Also wrote Cosmos (Hugo for non-fiction, 1981)
Mary Shelley ? Frankenstein, considered the first science fiction novel. Also: Last Man
Robert Silverberg Jewish "Born With the Dead" (1974); "Nightwings" (1969); "Enter a Soldier. Later: Enter Another" (1990); "Gilgamesh in the Outback" (1987); "Passengers" (1969); A Time of Changes (1971); "Good News from the Vatican" (1971); "Sailing to Byzantium" (1985); Lord Valentine's Castle (1981); [Dying Inside was ranked 50th in the Internet Top 100 Survey, Cooke, as of Oct. 1999. Ranked 66th in ISFDB Top 100 Novels]; Runner up in 1998 Sideways Awards for "Waiting for the End"; The Stochastic Man (Campbell Award 2nd place in 1976). Silverberg was ranked 1st on the ISFDB Top 100 Authors list.
Dan Simmons agnostic? Hyperion (1990); The Rise of Endymion (1998); Fires of Eden (1995); Children of the Night (1993); Summer of the Night (1992); The Fall of Hyperion (1991); "This Year's Class Picture" (1993 Sturgeon Award); Simmons was ranked 20th on the ISFDB Top 100 Authors list.
Cordwainer Smith
a.k.a. Paul M. A. Linebarger Anglican Norstrilia [Ranked 17th in Amazon.com's Best SF/F Books of the Century]; He mostly wrote interconnected short stories, which are available in together in various volumes. "No, No, Not Rogov!"; "Scanners Live In Vain"; The Rediscovery of Man: The Complete Short Science Fiction of Cordwainer Smith; Space Lords; The Instrumentality of Mankind; "Alpha Ralpha Boulevard"; Planet Buyer; The Underpeople. [Website]
Olaf Stapledon Unitarian / Quaker / agnostic [Stapledon is called the heir to H.G. Wells, and was of immeasurable importance in the early days of science fiction.] Last and First Men: A Story of the Near and Far Future; Odd John; Star Maker; Sirius; Last Men in London. Non-fiction: A Modern Theory of Ethics; Beyond the 'Isms
Neal Stephenson ? The Diamond Age (1995; also Locus Award; Nebula nominee) [#61 on Amazon.com's 1996 bestsellers' list; #8 best-selling SF/F book at Amazon.com in 1999]; Snow Crash [Ranked #22 in the Amazon.com Millennium Poll; #66 on Amazon.com's 1996 bestsellers' list; 4th best-selling SF/F book at Amazon.com in 1999]; Cryptonomicon [Hugo nominee; British Fantasy Society Best Novel nominee; 2nd best-selling SF/F book at Amazon.com in 1999; was 1 of just 8 SF/F books on Publishers Weekly "Best Books 99" list]; Also: "Baroque Cycle" (Quicksilver, The Confusion, The System of the World); The Big U; Zodiac: The Eco-Thriller; Interface; The Cobweb; In the Beginning...Was the Command Line; Interface. One of the only authors ever to write fiction for Time magazine.
J. Michael Straczynski atheist [Straczynski is known primarily as the creator of the TV series "Babylon 5". This series has won the Hugo award for Dramatic Presentation in 1997 for the episode "Severed Dreams" and 1996 for "The Coming of Shadows".] Demon Night; Othersyde; Tales from the New Twilight Zone; Babylon 5 novels (Point of No Return; A Call to Arms; The Price of Peace); comic book author of his own series "Rising Stars" and Marvel's "Spider-Man"
Theodore Sturgeon Christian (denomination unknown) Bianca's Hands; More Than Human; "Slow Sculpture" (1970/1971); Godbody; 1985 World Fantasy Life Achievement Award; "Microcosmic God"; E Pluribus Unicorn
J.R.R. Tolkien Catholic [4 B-a-M reviews] The Hobbit and The Lord of the Rings [The Lord of the Rings ranked 1st in the Internet Top 100 Survey, Cooke, Oct. 1999. Ranked 96th in ISFDB Top 100 Novels. Ranked 1st in the Amazon.com Millennium Poll. The Hobbit was ranked 25th. The Hobbit was ranked 11th in Amazon.com's Best SF/F Books of the Century. Ranked 12th in the Amazon.com Millennium Poll. In 1999 The Lord of the Rings was in the Harper-Collins list of 100 Best Spiritual Books of the Century.]; Silmarillion (1978) [Ranked 42nd in ISFDB Top 100 Novels]; Tolkien has 98 Yahoo links - more than any other author; Tolkien was ranked 1st, as the favorite author of the millennium, in the Amazon.com customer-based Millennium Poll.
Harry Turtledove Jewish The Great War: Walk in Hell; How Few Remain (Sideways Award 1997); WorldWar series (1996 Sideways Honorable Mention); The Two Georges (1995 Sideways Honorable Mention; co-written w/ Richard Dreyfuss); "Must and Shall (1996 Hugo nominee; 1995 Sideways Honorable Mention; 1996 Nebula nominee); Agent of Byzantium series
Jules Verne Catholic 2000 Leagues Under the Sea; Journey to the Center of the Earth; Around the World in Eighty Days; From the Earth to the Moon
Kurt Vonnegut, Jr. Humanist [2 B-a-M reviews] Cat's Cradle (1972) [Ranked 97th in the Internet Top 100 Survey, Cooke, as of Oct. 1999.]; Mother Night (1972); Palm Sunday (1984); God Bless You, Mr. Rosewater (1974); Slaughterhouse-Five (1991) (The movie version of Slaughterhouse-Five won the 1973 Hugo Award for best dramatic presentation.); Hocus Pocus (1990); Timequake (1997); Galapagos (Campbell Award 2nd place in 1986)
H.G. Wells atheist [4 B-a-M reviews] [Wells is often called the "Father" of science fiction.] Men Like Gods; The Time Machine; The Island of Dr. Moreau; The Invisible Man; The War of the Worlds; The First Men in the Moon; The Food of the Gods; In the Days of the Comet
Connie Willis Lutheran; Congregationalist Doomsday Book (1992; also Locus Award 1993) [Ranked 12th on the ISFDB Top 100 Novels list.]; To Say Nothing of the Do (1999); "The Soul Selects Her Own Society ..." (1997); "Death on the Nile" (1994); "Fire Watch" (1982 / 1983); "A Letter From the Clearys" (1982); "The Last of the Winnebagos" (1988 Nebula / 1989 Hugo); "At the Rialto" (1989); "Even the Queen" (1992 Nebula / 1993 Hugo); "Newsletter" (1997); "Jack" (1991 Nebula Nominee); "Bellwether" (1997 Nebula Nominee); Lincoln's Dreams (Campbell Award 1st place, 1988). Willis was ranked 3rd on the ISFDB Top 100 Authors list.
Gene Wolfe Catholic Book of the New Sun Tetralogy [Ranked 87th in the Internet Top 100 Survey, Cooke, Oct. 1999.]; The Urth of the New Sun; The Castle of the Otter; Soldier of the Mist (1987); Sword of the Lictor (1983) [Ranked 2nd in ISFDB Top 100 Novels]; Soldier of Arte; Operation Ares; The Fifth Head of Cerberus; Peace; The Devil in a Forest; "The Death of Doctor Island" (1973); The Claw of the Conciliator (1981) [also Locus award. Ranked 20th in Amazon.com's Best SF/F Books of the Century. Ranked 11th in ISFDB Top 100 Novels]; The Shadow of the Torturer [Ranked 8th in ISFDB Top 100 Novels. Won Campbell Award 3rd place in 1981]; Stories From the Old Hotel (1989); 1996 World Fantasy Life Achievement Award; The Citadel of the Autarch [Ranked 74th in ISFDB Top 100 Novels. Won Campbell Award 1st place in 1984.]; Calde of the Long Sun (1995 Nebula Nominee); Wolfe was ranked 5th on the ISFDB Top 100 Authors list.
Dave Wolverton Latter-day Saint [Director of the Writers of the Future Contest. Wolverton holds the world record for the largest single author book signing, in the Guinness Book of Records. The record book signing took place late 1999 with his signing of 1,845 copies of the New York Times best-selling novel, A Very Strange Trip.] Courtship of Princess Leia (New York Times Best Seller); Star Wars: Jedi Apprentice: The Rising Force; The Golden Queen; A Very Strange Trip; Lords of the Seventh Swarm; Beyond the Gate; On My Way to Paradise (won a Philip K. Dick Memorial Special Award as one of the best SF novels of 1989); Path of the Hero; Serpent Catch; The Mummy Chronicles; "After a Lean Winter" (1996 Nebula nominee for best novelette); L. Ron Hubbard's Writers of the Future Contest Grand Prize; Runelords series (written as "Dave Farland": The Runelords, The Brotherhood of the Wolf)
Roger Zelazny ? Chronicles of Amber (including Trumps of Doom, 1986 [The First Chronicles of Amber were ranked 20th in the Internet Top 100 Survey, Cooke, Oct. 1999. 4 other works were also on this list.]); "He Who Shapes" (1965); "The Doors of His Face, the Lamps of His Mouth" (1965); "Home is the Hangman (1965); "Permafrost" (1987); "Twenty-four Views of Mount Fuji, by Hokusai" (1986); "Unicorn Variation" (1982); Lord of Light (1968) [Ranked 21st in the Internet Top 100 Survey, Cooke, Oct. 1999.]; And Call Me Conrad (1966); A Night in the Lonesome October (1994 Nebula Nominee); This Immortal; Zelazny was ranked 13th on the ISFDB Top 100 Authors list.

 

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History's Major Religious Leaders

History's Major Religious Leaders



Skip down to Famous Contemporary Religious Leaders.
The following list of religious leaders is taken directly from Living Biographies of Religious Leaders by Henry Thomas and Dana Lee Thomas, Garden City, New York: Garden City Books (1959), one volume in the Thomas's classic Living Biographies series.

Adherents.com has no position about whether or not these are really history's greatest or most influential religious leaders. Clearly this list represents the perspective of Henry and Dana Lee Thomas, who are historians and biogaphers.

Other Living Biographies Books by Henry and Dana Lee Thomas are about: Great Philosophers; Great Scientists; Great Composers; Great Poets; Great Painters; Famous Novelists; Famous Women.

If you have an alternative list of religious leaders which you would like included here, please write us at webmaster@adherents.com.

Henry and Dana Thomas Great Religious Leaders List

Jesus Christianity
Moses Jewish prophet
Isaiah Jewish prophet
Zoroaster founder of Zoroastrianism
Buddha founder of Buddhism
Confucius founder of Confucianism
John the Baptist prophet and contemporary of Jesus Christ
St. Paul Christianity
Mohammed Prophet of Islam
St. Francis of Assisi early Christian theologian
John Huss Bohemian Christian reformer; founder of Czech Hussites
Martin Luther primary founder of Protestantism
Loyola theologian and founder of Jesuits
Calvin founder of Calvinist branch of Protestantism
George Fox founder of Quakers
John Wesley founder of Methodist movement
Swedenborg founder of Swedenborgianism
Brigham Young 2nd prophet of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints
Mary Baker Eddy founder of Christian Science
Gandhi Hindu reformer and Indian political leader; mother was a Jain

Greatest Historical Religious Figures
(Steven A. DeVore and Richard Linford, InteliQuest Learning Systems; URL: http://www.4iq.com/people1.htm#list)

(Listed chronologically)
Abraham
Moses
Lao-tzu
Buddha
Confucius
Jesus Christ
Apostle Paul
Saint Augustine
Muhammad
Thomas Aquinas
Martin Luther
John Calvin
Joseph Smith
Gandhi
Other categories in the DeVore/Linford Series are: Explorers, Scientists, Inventors, Writers, Painters, Composers, and Leaders.

Greatest Historical Religious Figures (Bill Yenne)

(Listed chronologically)
Moses
Lao Tsu
Buddha
Confucius
Jesus Christ
St. Paul
St. Augustine
Mohammed
St. Thomas Aquinas
Martin Luther
Gandhi

Source: Yenne, Bill. 100 Men Who Shaped World History. San Francisco, CA: Bluewood Books (1994)


Greg Bear's List of History's Major Prophets

Greg Bear is the critically acclaimed author of such science fiction works as Eon, The Forge of God, Moving Mars, Foundation and Chaos, Blood Music, and Darwin's Radio. He has been awarded six Hugo and Nebula awards. His novella Heads (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1990, pg. 101-102) contains the following entertaining account narrated by the main character (a colonist on the moon) as he begins to research the book's fictional religion Logology:
I had dipped into records of past prophets during my Earth research. Zarathustra. Jesus. Mohammed. Shabbetai Tzevi, the seventeenth-century Turkish Jew who had claimed to be Messiah, and who in the end had apostatized and become a Moslem Al Mahdi, who had defeated the British at Khartoum. Joseph Smith, who had read the Word of God from golden tablets with special glasses, and Brigham Young...
Although Bear's fiction often incorporates theological and sociolgical themes, Bear himself does not claim to be a theologian or historian by training. This list of major prophets is Bear's attempt to describe the perspective of somebody living about 100 years in the future. Naturally, the list also reflects Bear's own perspective--that of a popular writer, futurist, and commentator on society who lives in the Pacific Northwestern United States. (Bear himself has stated he does not believe in any contemporary religion, but is fascinated by the subject.)
Zarathustra (Zoroaster)
Jesus
Mohammed
Shabbetai Tzevi
Al Mahdi
Joseph Smith
Brigham Young


Other lists shown above were compiled from a secular/historical (and Western) perspective. Lists prepared by writers with a different background, or written from a different perspective, would probably be different. A Hindu or Indian writer might include Ramakrishna, Vivekananda, Gandhi, etc.
Major Baha'i Prophets

The Baha'i Faith lists the following figures as major Prophets, or Manifestations of God:
Krishna
Zoroaster
Abraham
Moses
Buddha
Jesus
Muhammad
the Bab
Baha'u'llah



Compton's Encyclopedia Religion Biographies

Compton's Encyclopedia lists the following entries in their "Religion Biographies section" (http://www.comptons.com/encyclopedia/TOPIC_TREE/1548.html; viewed 18 May 2000; copyright 1998):
Abraham
Adalbert
Adalhard
Agatha
Agnes
Agnes of Assisi
Agnes of Montepulciano
Agnes of Poitiers
Agricola
Aidan of Lindisfarne
Akiba Ben Joseph
Alban
Allen, Richard
Anselm of Canterbury
Aquinas, Thomas
Arminius, Jacobus
Arrupe, Pedro
Augustine of Canterbury
Augustine of Hippo
Ba'al Shem Tov
Baeck, Leo
Barbara
Barth, Karl
Bartholomew I
Becket, Thomas
Bede the Venerable
Beecher Family
Bellarmine, Saint Robert
Benedict Biscop
Benedict of Aniane
Benedict of Nursia
Benedict the Black
Benen
Benjamin, Saint Bernard of Clairvaux
Bibiana
Boesak, Allan
Boniface
Boniface VIII
Brennan, Francis Joseph, Cardinal
Brewster, William
Buber, Martin
Buddha
Cabrini, Mother
Cajetan of Thiene
Calvin, John
Carroll, John (1735-1815)
Christina the Astonishing
Clements, George
Confucius
Cranmer, Thomas
Dalai Lama
David
Dominic
Dympna
Eddy, Mary Baker
Edwards, Jonathan
England, John
Farrakhan, Louis
Finkelstein, Louis
Fox, George
Francis of Assisi
Ghazali, Al-
Graham, Billy
Gregory, Popes
Harris, Barbara Clementine
Hus, Jan
Hutchinson, Anne Innocent III, Pope
Jeremiah
Jesus Christ
Joan
Joan of Arc
John Paul, Popes
John XXIII
Judson, Adoniram
Julius II
Kimball, Spencer
Knox, John
Kobo Daishi, or Kukai
Lao-Tzu
Latimer, Hugh
Lefebvre, Marcel
Leo, Popes
Loyola, Ignatius of
Luther, Martin
Mahavira
Maimonides
Mary
Mather Family
Meyendorff, John
Moody, Dwight L.
Moses
Mott, John R.
Muhammad
Muhlenberg Family
Newman, John Henry
Nichiren
Nirmala, Sister
Ockham, William of
Pascal, Blaise
Patrick Paul (Ad 10?-67?)
Paul VI
Pedersen, Christiern
Peter
Philo
Pius, Popes
Ramanuja
Rashi
Ricci, Matteo
Russell, Charles Taze
Sa`adia Ben Joseph
Savonarola, Girolamo
Schweitzer, Albert
Seton, Mother
Smith, Joseph (1805-44)
Ssderblom, Nathan
Solomon
Swedenborg, Emanuel
Tanenbaum, Marc
Teresa, Mother
Tillich, Paul
Tomasek, Frantisek
Ulfilas
Urban, Popes
Weber, Max (1864-1920)
Wesley, John
Whitefield, George
Wovoka
Wycliffe, John
Xavier, Francis
Ximenes, or Jim*nez, De Cisneros, Francisco
Young, Brigham
Zwingli, Huldrych


Time Magazine's Person of the Century Poll

"While Time deliberated on its Person of the Century, the magazine's Web site invited readers to vote. [Source: The King of the Century" in the San Jose Mercury News, 27 Dec. 1999; URL: http://www7.mercurycenter.com:80/premium/nation/docs/timebox27.htm] It's clear from this poll that many individuals voted for the contemporary major religious leader who represents their own faith (Protestants voted for Billy Graham, Catholis voted for Pope John Paul II, Latter-day Saints voted for Gorden B. Hinckley).
Other people voted for an ideological leader important to them (Martin Luther King Jr., Mohandas Gandhi or Ronald Reagan). Jews and Israelis voted for Yitzhak Rabin. People who value pop culture put Elvis Presley at the top. Adolf Hitler's third place ranking is probably a result of people trying to make an accurate historical assessment of who had the most impact. They certainly don't endorse his actions, but recognize his importance.

Elvis Presley 624,574
Yitzhak Rabin 599,557
Adolf Hitler 516,408
Billy Graham 470,477
Albert Einstein 443,630
Martin Luther King Jr. 381,462
Pope John Paul II 372,015
Gordon B. Hinckley* 255,026
Mohandas Gandhi 163,940
Ronald Reagan 81,262
*Hinckley is president of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints.
Source: Time Web site www.pathfinder.com/time/
MERCURY NEWS


Famous Contemporary Religious Leaders

(Some leaders listed below are simply among the most visible representatives of certain groups, not necessarily titular heads or official representatives, e.g. Billy Graham.)
Pope Benedict XVI - Catholic Church. Webpage.
Dalai Lama - Tibetan Buddhism. Official site.
Billy Graham - Protestant. Billy Graham Center Archives
Jerry Falwell - Evangelical. Article in Christianity Today; official site; opposing views.
Ecumenical Patriarch Bartholomew - Eastern Orthodox Church. An official biography.
President Gordon B. Hinckley - Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. Intro by Mike Wallace.
Archbishop of Canterbury Rowan Williams - Anglican. Homepage.
Imam W. Deen Mohammed - Muslim American Society. Official site.
Louis Farrakhan - Nation of Islam. Biography at official site.
Master Li Hongzhi - Falun Dafa. Official site.
Special "Millennium Month" Christmas Eve and New Years Eve Guests
On the Larry King Show (CNN), December 1999

Bishop Desmond Tutu of South Africa
Dalai Lama, leader of Tibetan Buddhism
Rev. Billy Graham, world-famous evangelist
Pres. Gordon B. Hinckley of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints
Rev. Schuller of the Crystal Cathedral and the television program "Hour of Power"
GO Network's "Famous Religious Leaders and Figures"

Leaders listed on the GO Network web portal's Religious Leaders and Figures directory page (as of 21 March 2000; URL: http://www.go.com/WebDir/People/Famous_people/Religious_leaders_and_figures):
Dalai Lama
Louis Farrakhan
Pope John Paul II
Mary Baker Eddy *
Billy Graham
Jerry Falwell
Mother Teresa *
* Deceased
Some Major American Protestant Leaders (Bynum)

As listed by Pastor E. L. Bynum, Tabernacle Baptist Church, Lubbock, Texas.
Benny Hinn
Bill Hybels
Bill McCartney
Billy Graham
Jack Van Impe
Jerry Falwell
John MacArthur
Robert Schuller



Some Major Christian Leaders and Writers (MisterPoll)

List of individuals from the "Christianity Poll," done by Mister Poll (http://www.misterpoll.com/3611932490.html):
Billy Graham
Bishop Desmund Tutu
Pat Robertson
Pope John Paul II
Jerry Falwell
Max Lucado
C.S. Lewis
T.D. Jakes
Benny Hinn
Charles Swindoll
James Dobson

 

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History's Greatest Philosophers

History's Greatest Philosophers
The following list of "great philosophers" is taken directly from Living Biographies of Great Philosophers by Henry Thomas and Dana Lee Thomas, Garden City, New York: Garden City Books (1959), one volume in the Thomas's classic Living Biographies series.
Adherents.com has no position about whether or not these are really history's greatest or most influential philosophers. We simply thought it would be interesting to present a generally respected list of philosophers, along with the "religious affiliation" of each -- to whatever extent such a concept can be applied to these individuals. Obviously the belief systems of each of these philosphers extend beyond traditionally defined denominational parameters. "Religious affiliations" listed below include traditions the philosophers were raised in as well as philosophies they founded or grew into. This list does not summarize the philosophy of these individuals. This list represents the perspective of Henry and Dana Lee Thomas, who are historians and biographers.

Other Living Biographies Books by Henry and Dana Lee Thomas are about: Great Scientists; Great Composers; Great Poets; Great Painters; Religious Leaders; Famous Novelists; Famous Women.

Related Pages:
- Spiritual/Religious Biographies - Religious Affiliation of Famous People
- Famous Adherents - lists of famous adherents of dozens of different religious groups

Name Date Birthplace Affiliation Some Works Written
Socrates 470-
399 B.C Athens, Greece Greek philosophy, precursor of Platonism (he led what was considered a dangerous cult in his time, and he was put to death for his teachings, which are today called "ancient Greek philosophy") Developer of the Socratic Method
Plato 427 -
347 B.C. Athens, Greece Greek philosophy / Platonism Republic; Symposium; Phaedrus; Phaedo; Apology of Socrates; Crito; Sophist; Ion; Meno; Laws
Aristotle 384 -
322 B.C. Stagira, Macedonia Greek philosophy / Platonism / Deist / Aristotelian philosophy Dialogues; On Monarchy; Alexander; The Customs of Barbarians; Natural History; Organon, or The Instrument of Correct Thinking; On the Soul; Logic; Rhetoric; Eudemian Ethics; Physics; Metaphysics; Politics; Poetics
Epicurus 342 -
270 B.C. Samos, Ionia, Greece Greek philosophy / Platonism / Epicureanism To Herodotus, dealing with physics; To Menoecus, dealing with ethics and theology; To Pythocles, on meteorology
Marcus Aurelius 121-180 Roman Empire Pagan / Cynicism / Stoicism / Christian Meditations
Saint Thomas Aquinas 1225-1274 Roccasecca, Naples, Italy Catholic Summa Theologica; Summa Contra Gentilres; Disputed Questions; On Divine Names; On the Book of Causes
Francis Bacon 1561-1626 London, England Anglican New Atlantis; The Wisdom of the Ancients; Colors of Good and Evil; Sacred Meditations; Confession of Faith; Things Thought and Things Seen; History of Life and Death
Rene Descartes 1596-1650 La Haye, Touraine, France Catholic The Search after Truth; Rules for the Direction of the Mind; Discourse on the Method of Rightly Conducting the Reason; Meditatios on the First Philosophy; Principles of Philosophy; The World; Geometry; Treatise on Man; Dioptric
Baruch de Spinoza 1632-1677 Amsterdam, Netherlands Judaism; later pantheism/deism Short Treatise on God, Man and His Well Being; Treatise on Religion and Politics; Metaphysical Thoughts; The Calculation of Chances; Ethics
John Locke 1632-1704 Wrington, Somersetshire, England raised as a Puritan (Anglican); later general liberal Protestant Christian The Reasonableness of Christianity; Letters on Toleration; Two Treatises on Government; Essay Concerning the Human Understanding; Thoughts on Education
Voltaire 1694-1778 Paris, France Jansenist; Deist Henriade; Oedipe; Brutus; Zaire; Mahomet; Irene; Littlebig; Letters on the English; Candide; The World As It Goes; Zadig
David Hume 1711-1776 Edinburgh, Scotland Church of Scotland (Presbyterian); deist Treatise of Human Nature; Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion; Four Dissertations: The Natural History of Religion, of the Passions, Of Tragedy, Of the Standard of Taste; Inquiry Concerning the Principles of Morals
Immanuel Kant 1724-1804 Konigsberg, East Prussia (Kaliningrad) Lutheran; Pietist The Critique of Pure Reason; The Critique of Practical Reason; The Critique of Judgment; Metaphysic of Nature; Metaphysic of Ethics; Religion within the Limits of Pure Reason
Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel 1770-1831 Stuttgart, Germany Lutheran Science of Logic; Phenomenology of Spirit; Aesthetics; Philosophy of Religion; Philosophy of Art; Philosophy of Mind; Philosophy of Right; Philosophy of History; History of Philosophy; Encyclopedia of Philosophical Science; Life of Jesus
Arthur Schopenhauer 1788-1860 Gdansk, Poland philosophically atheist and anti-rationalist; among religions, preferred Hindu mysticism The World As Will and Idea; On the Fourfold Root of Sufficient Reason; On the Will in Nature; The Art of Controversy; The Two Fundamental Problems of Ethics
Ralph Waldo Emerson 1803-1882 Boston, MA Unitarian minister; left and developed "Transcendentalism" The American Scholar; English Traits; Nature; Essays; Representative Man; The Conduct of Life; Letters and Social Aims; The Oversoul; The Natural History of the Intellect; Duty; Truth; Beauty and Manners; Literary Ethics; Journals; Poems; Many Days and Other Pieces
Herbert Spencer 1820-1903 Derby, Derbyshire, England atheist; "scientific philosophy" Principles of Sociology; Principles of Ethics; The Theory of Population; The Universal Postulate; Man versus the State; First Principles
Friedrich Wilhelm Nietzsche 1844-1900 Rocken, Saxony, Germany raised Lutheran (father was a pastor); later pagan-atheist-Nietzscheist The Birth of Tragedy; Human All Too Human; The Dawn of Day; The Joyful Wisdom; Thus Spake Zarathustra; Beyond Good and Evil; The Genealogy of Morals; Schopenhauer as Educator; The Will to Power; The Twilight of the Idols; Antichrist; Ecce Homo (autobiography)
William James 1842-1910 New York City, New York raised by a free-thinking mystic; pluralistic The Principles of Psychology; Human Immortality; The Will to Believe and other Essays in Popular Philosophy; Talks to Teachers on Psychology and to Students on Some of Life's Ideals; The Varieties of Religious Experience; A Pluralistic Universe; The Meaning of Truth; Essays in Radical Empiricism; Some Problems in Philosophy
Henri Bergson 1859-1941 Paris, France born Jewish; skeptic and atheist while young; later idealist and believer in Elan Vital Creative Evolution; Time and Free Will; Matter and Memory; Mind-Energy; Laughter and Metaphysics; The Perception of Change; The Meaning of the War (of 1914)
George Santayana 1863-1952 Madrid, Spain devout Platonist-Catholic-Atheist Lucifer, a Theological Tragedy; The Sense of Beauty; Interpretations of Poetry and Religion; The Life of Reason, in five volumes: Reason in Common Sense, Reason in Society, Reason in Religion, Reason in Art, Reason in Science; Three Philosophical Poets; Winds of Doctrine; Egotism in German Philosophy; Skepticism and Animal Faith; Platonism and the Spiritual Life; The Realms of Being; The Last Puritan; The Realm of Truth; The Realm of Spirit; Persons and Places; The Middle Span

World's Greatest Philosophers
(Steven A. DeVore and Richard Linford, InteliQuest Learning Systems; URL: http://www.4iq.com/people1.htm#list)
Socrates
Plato
Aristotle
Francis Bacon
Rene Descartes
John Locke
Voltaire
Jean Jacques Rousseau
Adam Smith
Immanuel Kant
Karl Marx
Friedrich Nietzsche

 

 

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A Ranking of the Most Influential People in the History of the Movies

A Ranking of the Most Influential People in the History of the Movies



Related pages:
- Religious Affiliation of the 25 Most Influential Film Directors of All Time
- Religious Affiliation of the Directors of AFI's 100 Greatest American Movies
- Religious Affiliation of AFI's 50 Greatest Actors and Actresses
The following list of names is from the book The Film 100 (full title: The Film 100: A Ranking of the Most Influential People in the History of the Movies), written by Scott Wise, a Citadel Press Book, published by Carol Publishing Group: Secaucus, New Jersey (1998).

The purpose of this page is not to provide details about the careers and lasting influence of these individuals (numerous other resources are available for that). This purpose of this page is to identify the religious affiliation, religious background and/or religious beliefs of the individuals named in the "Film 100" list. The names and rankings in this list are from The Film 100, by Scott Wise. The other information has been researched and collected by Adherents.com specifically for this page.

The Film 100:
A Ranking of the Most Influential People in the History of the Movies

Rank. Name Religious Affiliation Brief note about significance, occupation, credits
1. W. K. Laurie Dickson ? inventor of the motion picture camera
2. Edwin S. Porter invented film editing; America's first major filmmaker
3. Charlie Chaplin Anglican; agnostic actor, director
4. Mary Pickford Catholic; Christian Science (convert) actress; studio boss; co-founder of United Artists
5. Orson Welles Protestant Christian director/actor; Citizen Kane; etc.
6. Alfred Hitchcock Catholic director; Psycho; The Birds; Rear Window; etc.
7. Walt Disney Congregationalist pioneering animator
8. D. W. Griffith Methodist director
9. Will Hays Presbyterian led Hollywood's self-censorship: 1930 Motion Picture Produc. Code
10. Thomas Edison Congregationalist; agnostic inventor, developed film recording, projection technology, light
11. John Wayne Presbyterian; Catholic actor, movie star, esp. in Westerns
12. J. R. Bray founded first studio dedicated to animation
13. Billy Bitzer pioneering cameraman
14. Jesse Lasky founded first motion picture studio in Hollywood
15. George Eastman photography innovations incl. dry plates, film w/ flexible backing
16. Sergei Eisenstein Russian Orthodox; Marxist; Freudian Soviet director; developed montage; Battleship Potemkin
17. Andre Bazin Catholic French film critic
18. Irving Thalberg Jewish movie producer
19. Thomas Ince director
20. Marlon Brando minimal Christian Science;
Native American spirituality pioneering "method" actor, inspired realism in film acting
21. Louis B. Mayer Jewish Hollywood studio mogul
22. Greta Garbo Lutheran actress
23. Robert Flaherty Protestant father;
Catholic mother pioneering documentary filmmaker; Nanook of the North
24. Lon Chaney Christianity; both parents deaf actor popular for monster, horror roles; make-up pioneer
25. Anita Loos screenwriter
26. Georges Melies Catholic early cinema pioneer; inventor of the sci-fi and fantasy genres
27. Adolph Zukor Jewish producer and executive
28. John Gilbert Latter-day Saint leading silent-era movie star
29. Max Fleischer Jewish producer
30. John Ford Catholic director, esp. Westerns
31. William Fox Jewish producer, theater chain owner
32. George Lucas Buddhist Methodist director, developer of special effects; Star Wars; etc.
33. Linwood Gale Dunn visual special effects pioneer
34. Eadweard Muybridge inventor of key photographic, film processes
35. Katharine Hepburn nominal Episcopalian background; atheist actress
36. Winsor McCay animator
37. Stanley Kubrick Jewish director; 2001: A Space Oddysey; Dr. Strangelove; etc.
38. Buster Keaton Catholic (non-practicing) actor known for physical comedy
39. James Agee Episcopalian film critic
40. Fritz Lang Jewish Catholic director (M; Metropolis; etc.)
41. Marcus Loew Jewish founded theater chain
42. Cedric Gibbons art director
43. James Cagney Catholic actor
44. Ben Hecht Jewish producer, director, writer
45. Ingmar Bergman Lutheran; agnostic acclaimed Swedish filmmaker
46. Humphrey Bogart Episcopalian (lapsed) actor
47. Leon Schlesinger Jewish producer over Warner Brothers animation studio
48. Louella Parsons Catholic entertainment and gossip columnist
49. Roger Corman Catholic producer, director
50. Edith Head Catholic costume designer
51. Bernard Herrmann Jewish composer
52. Gary Cooper Catholic (convert) actor
53. Mike Todd Judaism producer; pioneered 70-millimeter film; Around the World in 80 Days
54. Ernst Lubitsch Jewish German-born director; "King of Comedy"; also musicals
55. Sidney Poitier Vodoun; Anglican; Catholic pioneering black actor
56. Saul Bass title designer
57. Billy Wilder Jewish director; Double Indemnity; Some Like It Hot, etc.
58. Bette Davis Baptist/Episcopalian family background;
Christian Science (temporary) actress
59. Erich von Stroheim Jewish-born Catholic (convert) actor, director; Greed
60. Max Factor developed face make-up used in filmmaking
61. The Lumiere Brothers first to project moving, photographic, pictures to paying audience
62. Woody Allen Jewish (raised Orthodox);
agnostic director, actor; "Annie Hall" (1977), etc.
63. Clark Gable Catholic actor
64. David O. Selznick Jewish producer
65. Gregg Toland pioneering cinematographer; Citizen Kane
66. Lillian Gish Episcopalian actress
67. William Cameron Menzies set designer; Gone with the Wind
68. Lucille Ball Protestant;
Dutch Reformed (Rev. Peale) actress, comedian; television sitcom pioneer
69. Samuel Rothafel Jewish pioneer in building movie "palaces"; synched orchestral score to film
70. Akira Kurosawa Buddhist-Shinto culture influential Japanese filmmaker
71. Marilyn Monroe Christian Science;
temporary convert to Judaism actress, movie star, female icon
72. Vittorio De Sica Catholic Italian director; The Bicycle Thief
73. Natalie Kalmus co-developer of Technicolor process
74. Gene Siskel &
Roger Ebert
lapsed Catholic influential film reviewers
75. Willis O'Brien special effects pioneer; stop motion photography; King Kong
76. Shirley Temple Presbyterian, Episcopalian popular child star
77. Yakima Canutt stunt man
78. Sam Peckinpah Protestant director
79. Jackie Coogan Catholic child actor
80. Federico Fellini Catholic; astrology; Jung director
81. Leni Riefenstahl Lutheran influential director famous for Nazi propaganda films
82. Steven Spielberg Judaism director
83. Sam Warner Jewish executive, studio founder
84. Jean-Luc Godard Calvinist/Huguenot (lapsed);
devout Maoist director
85. Robert De Niro Catholic (non-practicing) actor
86. Fred Astaire Episcopalian popular dancing actor, dance choreographer
87. Francis Ford Coppola Catholic (non-practicing) director
88. Ted Turner raised Catholic/Episcopal;
now agnostic or atheist cable mogul; film colorization
89. Clint Eastwood raised Protestant; agnostic actor famous for popular Westerns; leading director
90. Dalton Trumbo Christian Science Important novelist and screenwriter
91. Dennis Hopper director, actor
92. Richard Hollingshead drive-in movies inventor and entrepreneur
93. Melvin Van Peebles pioneering black filmmaker
94. John Chambers make-up technician, advanced latex masks; Planet of the Apes
95. Mack Sennett Catholic pioneer, innovator of slapstick film comedy (incl. Keystone Kops)
96. Martin Scorsese Catholic (lapsed former seminarian) director
97. Karl Struss DP for Cecil B. DeMille, etc.; pioneering cinematographer
98. Busby Berkeley influential Hollywood movie director, musical choreographer
99. John Hubley New York Times: "most influential animator of the postwar era"
100. John Cassavetes Greek Orthodox director; pioneer of American cinema verite; Faces; Shadows; etc.

 

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The Globe and Mail The Millennium 100

The Globe and Mail The Millennium 100



Our readers' choice: Einstein

In response to our invitation to submit 20 names of individuals who had the most impact in the past 1,000 years, readers most consistently listed the German-born mathematician and physicist. His character - an iconic mix of science and soul - reflects the makeup of our list of the 100 most influential people.

Saturday, January 2, 1999
By: SALEM ALATON
Special to The Globe and Mail


1 Albert Einstein (1879-1955) Jewish German-U.S. physicist described relativity
2 Martin Luther (1483-1546) Catholic; Lutheran German founder of the Reformation
3-4 (tie) Karl Marx (1818-1883) Jewish; Lutheran;
Atheist; Marxism/Communism German economic theorist of communism
William Shakespeare (1564-1616) Catholic; Anglican English playwright and poet
5 Isaac Newton (1642-1727) Anglican (rejected Trinitarianism, i.e., Athanasianism;
believed in the Arianism of the Primitive Church) English scientist promulgated laws of motion
6 Adolf Hitler (1889-1945) Nazism; born/raised in, but rejected Catholicism Austrian-German dictator responsible for the Second World War and Holocaust
7 Christopher Columbus (1451-1506) Catholic Italian discoverer of the New World
8 Johannes Gutenberg (1400-68) Catholic German inventor of printing
9 Charles Darwin (1809-82) Anglican (nominal); Unitarian English naturalist theorized evolution
10 Galileo Galilei (1564-1642) Catholic Italian astronomer described solar system
11 Mohandas Gandhi (1869-1948) Hindu (mother was a Jain) Indian leader; advocate of nonviolent dissent
12 Thomas Edison (1847-1931) Congregationalist; agnostic U.S. inventor of gramophone, light bulb
13-14 (tie) Napoleon Bonaparte (1769-1821) Catholic (nominal) French emperor, military innovator
Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519) Catholic Italian artist, architect and engineer
15 Alexander Graham Bell (1847-1922) Unitarian Scottish-U.S.-Canadian inventor of the telephone
16 Henry Ford (1863-1947) Protestant U.S. car maker pioneered assembly line
17 Mao Tsetung (1893-1976) Communist; Maoist; atheist Chinese leader of Communist revolution
18 Louis Pasteur (1822-95) Catholic French chemist developed bacteriology
19 Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543) Catholic (priest) Polish astronomer described solar system
20 Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) Jewish; atheist
Freudian psychology/psychoanalysis Austrian neurologist created psychoanalysis
21 Winston Churchill (1874-1965) Anglican British leader in Second World War
22 Genghis Khan (1162-1227) Mongolian shamanism Mongol ruler created vast empire
23 James Watt (1736-1819) Presbyterian (lapsed) Scottish engineer developed steam engine
24-25 (tie) Wolfgang Mozart (1756-91) Catholic Austrian composer; the "golden child of music"
William the Conqueror (1027-87) Catholic English king implemented feudalism
26 Marie Curie (1867-1934) Catholic (lapsed) Polish-French physicist developed radiography
27 Johann Sebastian Bach (1685-1750) Lutheran German composer developed polyphony
28 Vladimir Lenin (1870-1924) Russian Orthodox;
Atheist; Marxism/Communism Russian leader of Communist revolution
29 Abraham Lincoln (1809-65) Regular Baptist (childhood);
later ambiguous -
Deist, general theist or
a very personalized Christianity U.S. president united country, ended slavery
30 Elizabeth I (1533-1603) Anglican English queen presided over growing empire
31 Marchese Marconi (1874-1937) Catholic and Anglican Italian inventor of wireless telegraphy
32-33 (tie) Michelangelo Buonarroti (1475-1564) Catholic Italian sculptor, painter
Joseph Stalin (1879-1953) Russian Orthodox; Atheist; Marxism Soviet dictator enslaved, killed millions
34 Bill Gates (born 1955) U.S. software developer
35 Orville Wright (1871-1948) United Brethren U.S. pioneer of aviation
36 Adam Smith (1723-90) Liberal Protestant Scottish economist described growth of wealth
37 Ludwig van Beethoven (1770-1827) Catholic German composer of Romantic era
38 Marco Polo (1254-1324) Catholic Venetian merchant opened Western eyes to China
39 Thomas Jefferson (1743-1826) raised Episcopalian; later no specific denomination
held Christian, Deist, Unitarian beliefs U.S. president drafted Declaration of Independence
40 Alexander Fleming (1881-1955) Catholic Scottish bacteriologist discovered penicillin
41 Rene Descartes (1596-1650) Catholic French thinker led modern philosophy
42 George Washington (1732-99) Episcopalian First U.S. president; won nation's independence
43 Nelson Mandela (born 1918) First black leader of South Africa after apartheid
44 Martin Luther King Jr. (1929-68) Baptist U.S. minister led civil-rights movement
45 Mother Teresa (1910-1997) Catholic Albanian nun, missionary to India
46 Florence Nightingale (1820-1910) Anglican English nurse reformed her profession
47 Queen Victoria (1819-1901) Anglican English monarch extended empire
48 Joan of Arc (1412-31) Catholic French martyr ended English occupation
49 Wilbur Wright (1867-1912) United Brethren U.S. pioneer of aviation
50 Thomas Aquinas (1225-74) Catholic Italian theologian stressed human knowledge
51 Jean J. Rousseau (1712-78) born Protestant;
converted as a teen to Catholic;
later Deist French thinker described democracy
52-53 (tie) Henry VIII (1491-1547) Anglican English king contested Roman Catholic Church
King John (1167-1216) English monarch signed Magna Carta
54 Pablo Picasso (1881-1973) Catholic Spanish modernist painter, cubist
55-56 (tie) Alfred Nobel (1833-96) Swedish chemist invented dynamite, founded prize
Emmeline Pankhurst (1857-1928) English suffragette leader won rights for women
57 Robert Oppenheimer (1904-67) Jewish U.S. physicist led development of atom bomb
58 Benjamin Franklin (1706-90) Presbyterian; Deist U.S. statesman, inventor, described electricity
59-61 (tie) Frederick Banting (1891-1941) Canadian physiologist co-discovered insulin
Otto von Bismarck (1815-98) Prussian leader unified German states
Walt Disney (1901-66) Congregationalist U.S. film-television producer and animator
62 Peter the Great (1672-1725) Russian Orthodox Russian czar extended nation's power
63-65 (tie) Henry the Navigator (1394-1460) Portuguese prince developed scientific navigation
John Locke (1632-1704) raised Puritan (Anglican); Liberal Christian English philosopher described empiricism
Elvis Presley (1935-77) Assemblies of God U.S. singer popularized rock 'n' roll
66-70 (tie) Edward Jenner (1749-1823) Anglican English physician pioneered vaccination
Niccolo Machiavelli (1469-1527) Catholic Italian diplomat, political philosopher
Ferdinand Magellan (1480-1521) Catholic Portuguese navigator explored Pacific
Jonas Salk (1914-95) Jewish U.S. virologist discovered polio vaccine
Voltaire (1694-1778) raised in Jansenism; later Deist French thinker advanced the enlightenment
71-72 (tie) Franklin D. Roosevelt (1882-1945) Episcopalian U.S. president during Depression, Second World War
James Watson (born 1928) U.S. biologist described DNA
73 Gregor Mendel (1822-84) Catholic (Augustinian monk) Austrian botanist developed genetic theory
74 Mikhail Gorbachev (born 1931) Russian Orthodox Soviet leader liberalized state
75 Michael Faraday (1791-1867) Sandemanian English physicist described electromagnetism
76-77 (tie) Francis Crick (born 1916) English biologist described DNA with Watson
Pope Urban II (1035-99) Catholic French pontiff initiated First Crusade
78 Neil Armstrong (born 1930) U.S. astronaut was first human on moon
79 Samuel Lister (1815-1906) English inventor developed textile machinery
80 Rembrandt van Rijn (1606-69) Dutch Reformed Dutch painter redefined art
81-83 (tie) Simon Bolivar (1783-1830) Catholic (nominal); Atheist South American revolutionary drove out Spanish
Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) Lutheran German philosopher defined critical idealism
Mary Wollstonecraft (1797-1851) Unitarian English writer and women's-rights reformer
84-85 (tie) Wernher von Braun (1912-77) Lutheran German-born U.S. rocket engineer developed Explorer
Diana Spencer (1961-97) Anglican English princess won popular appeal
86 James Cook (1728-79) English navigator explored Pacific, Antarctic
87-88 (tie) John F. Kennedy (1917-63) Catholic U.S. president; assassinated
John M. Keynes (1883-1946) English economist championed full employment
89 Charles Dickens (1812-70) Anglican English novelist decried class injustice
90 Alan Turing (1912-54) Jewish English mathematician developed computer science
91-92 (tie) Alighieri Dante (1265-1321) Catholic Italian poet wrote Divine Comedy
Ignatius Loyola (1491-1556) Catholic Spanish founder of Jesuits
93 Pope John Paul II (born 1920) Catholic Polish pontiff returns orthodoxy
94 Louis XIV (1638-1715) Catholic King of France when French influence spread throughout Europe
95-97 (tie) John Baird (1888-1946) Scottish engineer developed television
Rachel Carson (1907-64) Environmentalist U.S. naturalist inspired environmentalism
Saladin (1138-93) Islam Egyptian sultan founded a dynasty
98-99 (tie) Oliver Cromwell (1599-1658) Puritan (Protestant) English soldier overthrew monarchy
Pope John XXIII (1881-1963) Catholic Italian pontiff had modernizing influence
100 Suleyman the Magnificent (1494-1566) Islam Ottoman sultan expanded empire

 

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100 Scientists Who Changed the World

100 Scientists Who Changed the World

The list below is from the book Science: 100 Scientists Who Changed the World (Enchanted Lion Books: New York, 2003), written by John Balchin.

The names in this list are listed in chronological order. This book does not purport to list the "most influential" scientists in history, although these are presumably among them. The back cover states:

"If I saw further than others," said Sir Isaac Newton, "it is because I was standing on the shoulders of giants." Science introduces one hundred of these giants and examines their achievements: the men and women who, often in the face of extreme scepticism or worse, have striven and succeeded in pushing back the boundaries of human knowledge.
Ranging across the spectrum of scientific endeavour, from the cosmology of Copernicus and Galileo, through the medical revolutions of Hippocrates and Galen, it includes the fields of physics, biology, chemistry and genetics.

This is the story of the ideas that have shaped the world today, and the ideas that will shape the future.

Anaximander c. 611-547 B.C.
Pythagoras c. 581-497 B.C.
Hippocrates of Cos c. 460-377 B.C.
Democritus of Abdera c. 460-370 B.C.
Plato c. 427-347 B.C. Platonism / Greek philosophy
Aristotle c. 384-322 B.C. Platonism / Greek philosophy
Euclid c. 330-260 B.C. Platonism / Greek philosophy
Archimedes c. 287-212 B.C. Greek philosophy
Hipparchus c. 170-125 B.C.
Zhang Heng 78-139 A.D.
Ptolemy 90-168 A.D.
Galen of Pergamum 130-201 A.D.
Al-Khwarizmi 800-850 Islam
Johannes Gutenberg 1400-1468 Catholic
Leonardo da Vinci 1452-1519 Catholic
Nicolas Copernicus 1473-1543 Catholic (priest)
Andreas Vesalius 1514-1564 Catholic
William Gilbert 1540-1603
Francis Bacon 1561-1626 Anglican
Galileo Galileo 1564-1642 Catholic
Johannes Kepler 1571-1630 Lutheran
William Harvey 1578-1657 Anglican (nominal)
Johann van Helmont 1579-1644
Rene Descartes 1596-1650 Catholic
Blaise Pascal 1623-1662 Jansenist
Robert Boyle 1627-1691 Anglican
Christiann Huygens 1629-1695 Calvinist
Anton van Leeuwenhoek 1632-1723 Dutch Reformed
Robert Hooke 1635-1703 Anglican
Sir Isaac Newton 1642-1727 Anglican (rejected Trinitarianism, i.e., Athanasianism;
believed in the Arianism of the Primitive Church)
Edmund Halley 1656-1742
Thomas Newcomen 1663-1729 Baptist
Daniel Fahrenheit 1686-1736
Benjamin Franklin 1706-1790 Presbyterian; Deist
Joseph Black 1728-1799
Henry Cavendish 1731-1810
Joseph Priestley 1733-1804 Unitarian
James Watt 1736-1819 Presbyterian (lapsed)
Charles de Coulomb 1736-1806
Joseph Montgolfier 1740-1810
Karl Wilhelm Scheele 1742-1786
Antoine Lavoisier 1743-1794 Catholic
Count Alessandro Volta 1745-1827 Catholic
Edward Jenner 1749-1823 Anglican
John Dalton 1766-1844 Quaker
Andre-Marie Ampere 1755-1836
Amedo Avogadro 1776-1856 Catholic
Joseph Gay-Lussac 1778-1850
Charles Babbage 1791-1871 Anglican
Michael Faraday 1791-1867 Sandemanian
Charles Darwin 1809-1881 Anglican (nominal); Unitarian
James Joule 1818-1920
Louis Pasteur 1822-1895 Catholic
Johann Gregor Mendel 1822-1884 Catholic (Augustinian monk)
Jean-Joseph Lenoir 1822-1900
Lord Kelvin 1824-1907 Anglican
James Clerk Maxwell 1831-1879 Presbyterian; Anglican; Baptist
Alfred Nobel 1833-1896
Wilhelm Gottlieb Daimler 1834-1900
Dmitri Mendeleev 1834-1907
Wilhelm Conrad Roentgen 1845-1923
Thomas Alva Edison 1847-1931 Congregationalist; agnostic
Alexander Graham Bell 1847-1922 Unitarian/Universalist
Antoine-Henri Becquerel 1852-1908 Catholic
Paul Ehrlich 1854-1915 Jewish
Nikola Tesla 1856-1943
Sir John Joseph Thomson 1856-1940
Sigmund Freud 1856-1939 Jewish; Atheist; Freudian psychoanalysis (Freudianism)
Heinrich Rudolf Hertz 1857-1894 Lutheran
Max Planck 1858-1947 Protestant
Leo Baekeland 1863-1944
Thomas Hunt Morgan 1866-1945
Marie Curie 1867-1934 Catholic (lapsed)
Ernest Rutherford 1871-1937
The Wright Brothers Wilbur: 1867-1912; Orville: 1871-1948 United Brethren
Guglielmo Marconi 1847-1937 Catholic and Anglican
Frederick Soddy 1877-1956
Albert Einstein 1879-1955 Jewish
Alexander Fleming 1881-1955 Catholic
Robert Goddard 1882-1945
Neils Bohr 1885-1962 Jewish Lutheran
Erwin Schrodinger 1887-1961 Catholic
Henry Moseley 1887-1915
Edwin Hubble 1889-1953
Sir James Chadwick 1891-1974
Frederick Banting 1891-1941
Louis de Broglie 1892-1987
Enrico Fermi 1901-1954 Catholic
Werner Heisenberg 1901-1954 Lutheran
Linus Carl Pauling 1901-1994 Lutheran
Robert Oppenheimer 1904-1967 Jewish
Sir Frank Whittle 1907-1996
Edward Teller 1908- Jewish
William Shockley 1910-1989
Alan Turing 1912-1954 Jewish
Jonas Salk 1914-1995 Jewish
Rosalind Franklin 1920-1958 Jewish
James Dewey Watson 1928-
Stephen Hawking 1942- atheist
Tim Berners-Lee 1955- Unitarian

 

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امثال و حکم ; ۳:٢٦ ‎ب.ظ ; دوشنبه ٤ آذر ۱۳۸٧

100 Scientists Who Shaped World History

100 Scientists Who Shaped World History

The list below is from the book 100 Scientists Who Shaped World History (Bluewood Books: San Francisco, CA, © 2000), written by John Hudson Tiner.

The names in this list are listed in chronological order. This book does not purport to list the "most influential" scientists in history, although these are presumably among them. The names listed are not ranked in any way relative to each other. The back cover states:
100 Scientists Who Shaped World History is a fascinating book about the men and women who made significant impacts upon our understanding of the world around us. This chronologically-organized book provides capsule biographies of important scientists and describes how their contributions have shaped the world in which we live.
Pythagoras c. 580 B.C.-C. 500 B.C.
Hippocates c. 460 B.C.-377 B.C.
Aristotle 384 B.C.-322 B.C. Platonism / Greek philosophy
Euclid c. 325 B.C.-270 B.C. Platonism / Greek philosophy
Archimedes c. 287-c. 212 B.C. Greek philosophy
Eratosthenes c. 276 B.C.-c. 196 B.C.
Galen c. A.D. 130-c. 216
Hakim Ibn-e-Sina A.D. 980-1037 Islam
Nicolaus Copernicus 1473-1543 Catholic (priest)
Andreas Vesalius 1514-1564 Catholic
Gallileo Galilei 1564-1642 Catholic
Johannes Kepler 1571-1630 Lutheran
William Harvey 1578-1657 Anglican (nominal)
Rene Descartes 1596-1650 Catholic
Blaise Pascal 1623-1662 Jansenist
Robert Boyle 1627-1691 Anglican
Christian Huygens 1632-1695 Calvinist
Anton van Leeuwenhoek 1632-1723 Dutch Reformed
Robert Hooke 1635-1703 Anglican
Isaac Newton 1642-1727 Anglican (rejected Trinitarianism, i.e., Athanasianism;
believed in the Arianism of the Primitive Church)
Edmund Halley 1656-1742
Daniel Bernoulli 1700-1782 Calvinist
Benjamin Franklin 1706-1790 Presbyterian; Deist
Leonard Euler 1707-1783 Calvinist
Carolus Linnaeus 1707-1778 Christianity
Henry Cavendish 1731-1810
Joseph Priestley 1733-1804 Presbyterian; unitarian
William Herschel 1738-1822 Jewish
Antoine Laurent Lavoisier 1743-1794 Catholic
Alessandro Volta 1746-1827 Catholic
Edward Jenner 1749-1823 Anglican
John Dalton 1766-1844 Quaker
Georges Cuvier 1769-1832 Lutheran
Alexander von Humboldt 1769-1859
Karl Friedrich Gauss 1777-1855 Lutheran
Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac 1778-1850
Humphry Davy 1778-1829
Jons Jakob Berzelius 1779-1848
Michael Faraday 1791-1867 Sandemanian
Charles Babbage 1792-1871 Anglican
Joseph Henry 1797-1878 Presbyterian
Matthew Fontaine Maury 1806-1873
Louis Agassiz 1807-1873 Lutheran
Charles Darwin 1809-1882 Anglican (nominal); Unitarian
Augusta Ada Byron 1815-1852
James Prescott Joule 1818-1868
Jean Bernard Leon Foucault 1819-1868
Gregor Mendel 1822-1884 Catholic (Augustinian monk)
Louis Pasteur 1822-1895 Catholic
William Thomson, Lord Kelvin 1824-1907 Anglican
Joseph Lister 1827-1912 Quaker
Friedrich August Kekule 1829-1896
James Clerk Maxwell 1831-1879 Presbyterian; Anglican; Baptist
Dmitri Ivanovich Mendeleyev 1834-1907
William Henry Perkin 1838-1907
Wilhelm Konrad Roentgen 1845-1923
Thomas Alva Edison 1847-1931 Congregationalist; agnostic
Luther Burbank 1849-1923 Unitarian
Ivan Petrovich Pavlov 1849-1936
John Ambrose Fleming 1849-1945
William Ramsay 1852-1916
Antoine-Henri Becquerel 1852-1908 Catholic
Albert Abraham Michelson 1852-1908 Jewish
Sigmnd Freud 1856-1939 Jewish; Atheist; Freudian psychoanalysis (Freudianism)
Joseph John Thomson 1856-1940
Nettie Marie Stevens 1861-1912
George Washington Carver 1864-1943 Christianity
Marie Sklodowska Curie 1867-1934 Catholic (lapsed)
Henrietta Swan Leavitt 1868-1921 Protestant
Ernst Rutherford 1871-1937
Lise Meitner 1878-1968 Jewish-born Protestant
Albert Einstein 1879-1955 Jewish
Alexander Fleming 1881-1955 Catholic
Niels Bohr 1885-1962 Jewish Lutheran
Selman Abraham Waksman 1888-1973 Jewish
Edwin Powell Hubble 1889-1953
Robert Alexander Watson-Watt 1892-1973
Arthur Holly Compton 1892-1962 Presbyterian
Irene Joliot-Curie 1897-1956
Linus Carl Pauling 1901-1994 Lutheran
Enrico Fermi 1901-1954 Catholic
Werner Heisenberg 1901-1967 Lutheran
Margaret Mead 1901-1978 Episcopalian
Barbara McClintock 1902-1992
Grace Brewster Murray Hopper 1906-1992 Jewish
Marie Goeppert-Mayer 1906-1972
John Bardeen 1908-1991
William Bradford Shockley 1910-1989
Dorothy Crowfood Hodgkin 1910-1994
Jaques Yves Cousteau 1910-1997
Luis Walter Alvarez 1911-1988
Charles Hard Townes 1915-
Richard Philipis Feynman 1918-1988 Jewish
Frederick Sanger 1918-
Rosalind Elsie Franklin 1920-1958 Jewish
Rosalyn Sussman Yalow 1921- Jewish
Har Gobind Khorana 1922- Hindu
Tsung-Dao Lee 1926-
James Dewey Watson 1928-
Stephen William Hawking 1942- atheist

 

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امثال و حکم ; ۳:٢٥ ‎ب.ظ ; دوشنبه ٤ آذر ۱۳۸٧

A Ranking of the Most Influential Scientists, Past and Present

A Ranking of the Most Influential Scientists, Past and Present



The list below is from the book The Scientific 100: A Ranking of the Most Influential Scientists, Past and Present, Citadel Press (2000), written by John Galbraith Simmons.

1 Isaac Newton the Newtonian Revolution Anglican (rejected Trinitarianism, i.e., Athanasianism;
believed in the Arianism of the Primitive Church)
2 Albert Einstein Twentieth-Century Science Jewish
3 Neils Bohr the Atom Jewish Lutheran
4 Charles Darwin Evolution Anglican (nominal); Unitarian
5 Louis Pasteur the Germ Theory of Disease Catholic
6 Sigmund Freud Psychology of the Unconscious Jewish; Atheist; Freudian psychoanalysis (Freudianism)
7 Galileo Galilei the New Science Catholic
8 Antoine Laurent Lavoisier the Revolution in Chemistry Catholic
9 Johannes Kepler Motion of the Planets Lutheran
10 Nicolaus Copernicus the Heliocentric Universe Catholic (priest)
11 Michael Faraday the Classical Field Theory Sandemanian
12 James Clerk Maxwell the Electromagnetic Field Presbyterian; Anglican; Baptist
13 Claude Bernard the Founding of Modern Physiology
14 Franz Boas Modern Anthropology Jewish
15 Werner Heisenberg Quantum Theory Lutheran
16 Linus Pauling Twentieth-Century Chemistry Lutheran
17 Rudolf Virchow the Cell Doctrine
18 Erwin Schrodinger Wave Mechanics Catholic
19 Ernest Rutherford the Structure of the Atom
20 Paul Dirac Quantum Electrodynamics
21 Andreas Vesalius the New Anatomy Catholic
22 Tycho Brahe the New Astronomy Lutheran
23 Comte de Buffon l'Histoire Naturelle
24 Ludwig Boltzmann Thermodynamics
25 Max Planck the Quanta Protestant
26 Marie Curie Radioactivity Catholic (lapsed)
27 William Herschel the Discovery of the Heavens Jewish
28 Charles Lyell Modern Geology
29 Pierre Simon de Laplace Newtonian Mechanics atheist
30 Edwin Hubble the Modern Telescope
31 Joseph J. Thomson the Discovery of the Electron
32 Max Born Quantum Mechanics Jewish Lutheran
33 Francis Crick Molecular Biology atheist
34 Enrico Fermi Atomic Physics Catholic
35 Leonard Euler Eighteenth-Century Mathematics Calvinist
36 Justus Liebig Nineteenth-Century Chemistry
37 Arthur Eddington Modern Astronomy Quaker
38 William Harvey Circulation of the Blood Anglican (nominal)
39 Marcello Malpighi Microscopic Anatomy Catholic
40 Christiaan Huygens the Wave Theory of Light Calvinist
41 Carl Gauss (Karl Friedrich Gauss) Mathematical Genius Lutheran
42 Albrecht von Haller Eighteenth-Century Medicine
43 August Kekule Chemical Structure
44 Robert Koch Bacteriology
45 Murray Gell-Mann the Eightfold Way Jewish
46 Emil Fischer Organic Chemistry
47 Dmitri Mendeleev the Periodic Table of Elements
48 Sheldon Glashow the Discovery of Charm Jewish
49 James Watson the Structure of DNA atheist
50 John Bardeen Superconductivity
51 John von Neumann the Modern Computer Jewish Catholic
52 Richard Feynman Quantum Electrodynamics Jewish
53 Alfred Wegener Continental Drift
54 Stephen Hawking Quantum Cosmology atheist
55 Anton van Leeuwenhoek the Simple Microscope Dutch Reformed
56 Max von Laue X-ray Crystallography
57 Gustav Kirchhoff Spectroscopy
58 Hans Bethe the Energy of the Sun Jewish
59 Euclid the Foundations of Mathematics Platonism / Greek philosophy
60 Gregor Mendel the Laws of Inheritance Catholic (Augustinian monk)
61 Heike Kamerlingh Onnes Superconductivity
62 Thomas Hunt Morgan the Chromosomal Theory of Heredity
63 Hermann von Helmholtz the Rise of German Science
64 Paul Ehrlich Chemotherapy Jewish
65 Ernst Mayr Evolutionary Theory atheist
66 Charles Sherrington Neurophysiology
67 Theodosius Dobzhansky the Modern Synthesis Russian Orthodox
68 Max Delbruck the Bacteriophage
69 Jean Baptiste Lamarck the Foundations of Biology
70 William Bayliss Modern Physiology
71 Noam Chomsky Twentieth-Century Linguistics Jewish atheist
72 Frederick Sanger the Genetic Code
73 Lucretius Scientific Thinking Epicurean; atheist
74 John Dalton the Theory of the Atom Quaker
75 Louis Victor de Broglie Wave/Particle Duality
76 Carl Linnaeus the Binomial Nomenclature Christianity
77 Jean Piaget Child Development
78 George Gaylord Simpson the Tempo of Evolution
79 Claude Levi-Strauss Structural Anthropology Jewish
80 Lynn Margulis Symbiosis Theory Jewish
81 Karl Landsteiner the Blood Groups Jewish
82 Konrad Lorenz Ethology
83 Edward O. Wilson Sociobiology
84 Frederick Gowland Hopkins Vitamins
85 Gertrude Belle Elion Pharmacology
86 Hans Selye the Stress Concept
87 J. Robert Oppenheimer the Atomic Era Jewish
88 Edward Teller the Bomb Jewish
89 Willard Libby Radioactive Dating
90 Ernst Haeckel the Biogenetic Principle
91 Jonas Salk Vaccination Jewish
92 Emil Kraepelin Twentieth-Century Psychiatry
93 Trofim Lysenko Soviet Genetics Russian Orthodox; Communist
94 Francis Galton Eugenics
95 Alfred Binet the I.Q. Test
96 Alfred Kinsey Human Sexuality atheist
97 Alexander Fleming Penicillin Catholic
98 B. F. Skinner Behaviorism atheist
99 Wilhelm Wundt the Founding of Psychology atheist
100 Archimedes the Beginning of Science Greek philosophy

 

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امثال و حکم ; ۳:٢٤ ‎ب.ظ ; دوشنبه ٤ آذر ۱۳۸٧

The 100 Greatest Men of All Time

The 100 Greatest Men of All Time


The list below is from the book 100 Greatest Men (Grolier Educational: Danbury, Connecticut; 1997), written by Michael Pollard.

The names in this list are listed in categories (humanitarians; thinkers and philosophers; kings, emperors and politicians; religious leaders; musicians and composers; writers; painters, sculptors and architects; stage, screen and photography; scientists; inventors; explorers and pioneers).

The book's introduction (pages 6-7) notes:

This book tells the stories of many of the greatest men in history. Some, like Kublai Khan, the great ruler of the Mongols, and Peter the Great in Russia, were born princes and so, in time, became rulers of empirers. Others, like the writer Mark Twain and the aviators Wilbur and Orville Wright, faced a long, hard struggle to make their names. A third group, which includes Martin Luther King and Mikhail Gorbachev, found themselves caught up in political events which put them in positions of challenge and leadership.
One thing that all these men, and the others in this book, had in common was determination...

"Greatness" does not always mean "goodness." Among the great men in this book are some who left a blank mark on world history. Shi Huangdi, Emperor of China in the third century BC, ruled his empire ruthlessly. Death was the only punishment for disobeying his laws. Peter the Great, Tsar of Russia, had his son tortured to death for treason... These, and others whose stories have a dark side, have been included because, for good or evil, they left their mark on the age they lived in.

Humanitarians
Albert Schweitzer 1875-1965 Lutheran
Chiune Sugihara 1900-1986
Raoul Wallenberg 1912-c.1947
Martin Luther King, Jr. 1929-1968 Baptist
Desmond Tutu 1931- Anglican
The Dalai Lama 1935- Tibetan Buddhism
Han Dongfang 1963-
Thinkers and Philosophers
Lao Zi [Lao Tzu] c. 600 B.C. Taoism
Confucius 551-479 B.C. Confucianism
Socrates 469-399 B.C. Greek philosophy
Plato c. 427-347 B.C. Platonism / Greek philosophy
Aristotle 384-322 B.C. Platonism / Greek philosophy
Niccolo Machiavelli 1469-1527 Catholic
John Locke 1632-1704 raised Puritan (Anglican); Liberal Christian
Jean-Jacques Rousseau 1712-1778 born Protestant;
converted as a teen to Catholic;
later Deist
Karl Marx 1818-1883 Jewish; Lutheran;
Atheist; Marxism/Communism
Kings, Emperors and Politicians
Hammurabi c. 1792-1750 B.C.
Alexander the Great 356-323 Greek state paganism
Asoka c. 300-232 B.C. Buddhism
Shi Huangdi 259-210 B.C.
Julius Caesar c. 100-44 B.C. Roman state paganism
Charlemagne 742-814 A.D. Catholic
Kublai Khan 1214-1294
Peter the Great 1672-1725 Russian Orthodox
George Washington 1732-1799 Episcopalian
Napoleon Bonaparte 1769-1821 Catholic (nominal)
Simon Bolivar 1783-1830 Catholic (nominal); Atheist
Abraham Lincoln 1809-1865 Regular Baptist (childhood);
later ambiguous -
Deist, general theist or
a very personalized Christianity
Mahatma Gandhi 1869-1948 Hindu (mother was a Jain)
Kemal Ataturk 1881-1938
Franklin D. Roosevelt 1882-1945 Episcopalian
Nelson Mandela 1918-
Mikhail Gorbachev 1931- Russian Orthodox
Religious Leaders
Zoroaster c. 628-c. 551 B.C. Zoroastrianism
Muhammad c. 570-632 A.D. Islam
Buddha c. 563-c. 483 B.C. Hinduism; Buddhism
Moses c. 13th century B.C. Judaism
Jesus Christ c. 6 B.C.-c. 30 A.D. Judaism; Christianity
Martin Luther 1483-1546 Catholic; Lutheran
Musicians and Composers
Johann Sebastian Bach 1685-1750 Lutheran
Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart 1756-1791 Catholic
Ludwig van Beethoven 17770-1827 Catholic
Richard Wagner 1813-1883
Arturo Toscanini 1867-1957 Catholic
George Gershwin 1898-1937 Jewish
Louis Armstrong 1898-1971 Baptist
The Beatles formed 1960
Writers
Homer c. 700-c. 800 B.C. Greek paganism
Virgil 70-19 B.C.
Dante Alighieri 1265-1321 Catholic
William Shakespeare 1564-1616 Catholic; Anglican
Moliere 1622-1673 Catholic
Charles Dickens 1812-1870 Anglican
Mark Twain 1835-1910 Presbyterian
Bertolt Brecht 1898-1956
Painters, Sculptors and Architects
Michelangelo 1475-1564 Catholic
Rembrandt 1606-1669 Dutch Reformed
Christopher Wren 1632-1723 Anglican
Katsushika Hokusai 1760-1849
Joseph Mallord William Turner 1775-1851
Vincent van Gogh 1853-1890 Dutch Reformed
Frank Lloyd Wright 1869-1959 Unitarian
Pablo Picasso 1881-1973 Catholic
Le Corbusier 1887-1965
Stage, Screen and Photography
Charlie Chaplin 1889-1977 Anglican; agnostic
Jean Renoir 1894-1979 Catholic
Sergei Eisenstein 1898-1948 Russian Orthodox; Marxist; Freudian
Henri Cartier-Bresson 1908-
Orson Welles 1915-1985 Protestant Christian
Steven Spielberg 1947- Judaism
Scientists
Euclid c. 330-c. 260 B.C. Platonism / Greek philosophy
Archimedes c. 287-212 B.C. Greek philosophy
Leonardo da Vinci 1452-1519 Catholic
Galileo Galilei 1564-1642 Catholic
Isaac Newton 1642-1727 Anglican (rejected Trinitarianism, i.e., Athanasianism;
believed in the Arianism of the Primitive Church)
James Watt 1736-1819 Presbyterian (lapsed)
Michael Faraday 1791-1867 Sandemanian
Charles Darwin 1809-1882 Anglican (nominal); Unitarian
Louis Pasteur 1822-1895 Catholic
Joseph Lister 1827-1912 Quaker
Sigmund Freud 1856-1939 Jewish; atheist; Freudian psychology/psychoanalysis
Albert Einstein 1879-1955 Jewish
Alexander Fleming 1881-1955 Catholic
Linus Pauling 1901-1994 Lutheran
James Watson and Francis Crick 1928-; 1916-
Inventors
Zai Lun c. 50-118 A.D.
Johannes Gutenberg 1400-1468 Catholic
Samuel Morse 1791-1872 Christianity
Nikolaus Otto 1832-1891
Alfred Nobel 1833-1896
Alexander Graham Bell 1847-1922 Unitarian
Thomas Alva Edison 1847-1931 Congregationalist; agnostic
Orville Wright and Wilbur Wright 1871-1948; 1867-1912 United Brethren
Guglielmo Marconi 1847-1937 Catholic and Anglican
Explorers and Pioneers
Marco Polo c. 1254-1324 Catholic
Christopher Columbus 1451-1506 Catholic
Ferdinand Magellan 1480-1521 Catholic
Roald Amundsen 1872-1928
Yuri Gagarin 1934-1968
Neil Armstrong 1930-

 

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امثال و حکم ; ۳:٢۳ ‎ب.ظ ; دوشنبه ٤ آذر ۱۳۸٧

The 100 Most Powerful Women in the World

The 100 Most Powerful Women in the World

Soure of list (except for religious affiliation column): The Australian Magazine, a supplement of the Weekend Australian, May 4-5, 1996.


Rank Name - Country, age Religious Affiliation
1 Benazir Bhutto - Pakistan, 42 Islam
2 Hillary Clinton - US, 48 Methodist
3 Queen Elizabeth II - UK, 70 Anglican
4 Margaret Thatcher - UK, 70
5 Alice Mitchell Rivlin - US, 65
6 Tansu Ciller - Turkey, 49
7 Gro Harlem Brundtland - Norway, 57
8 Wu Yi - China, 57
9 Germaine Greer - Australia, 57
10 Oprah Winfrey - US, 42 Protestant
11 Sadako Ogata - Japan, 68
12 Christine Todd Whitman - US, 49 Presbyterian
13 Anson Chang - Hong Kong, 55
14 Katharine Graham - US, 78 Catholic
15 Laura d'Andrea Tyson - US, 49
16 Rachel Lomax - UK, 50
17 Madeleine Korbel Albright - US, 58 Episcopalian
18 Tutut Suharto - Indonesia, 47
19 Aung San Suu Kyi - Burma, 50 Buddhist
20 Mary Robinson - Ireland, 51
21 Vidgis Finnbogadottir - Iceland, 66
22 Janet Reno - US, 58
23 Nafis Sadik - Pakistan, 61
24 Hanan Ashrawi - Palestine, 49
25 Queen Beatrix - The Netherlands, 58
26 Charlotte Beers - US, 59
27 Sheila Widnall - US, 58
28 Sheila Maureen Copps - Canada, 43
29 Nguyen Thi Binh - Vietnam, 69
30 Dianne Feinstein - US, 63 Jewish
31 Violeta Chamorro - Nicaragua, 65
32 Chandrika Kumaratunga - Sri Lanka, 50
33 Begum Khaleda Zia - Bangladesh, 50
34 Rita Sussmuth - Germany, 59
35 Mirjana Markovic - former Yugoslavia, 53
36 Christine Ockrent - France, 51
37 Sherry Lansing - US, 51
38 Gloria Steinem - US, 61 half-Jewish; Feminist, Humanist
39 Jodie Foster - US, 33
40 Estee Lauder - US, 87 Jewish
41 Rosabeth Moss Kanter - US, 53
42 Pauline Green - UK, 47
43 Barbara Walters - US, 64
44 Sandra Day O'Connor - US, 66 Episcopalian
45 Anita Roddick - UK, 53
46 Ruth Bader Ginsburg - US, 63 Jewish
47 Nadine Gordimer - South Africa, 73
48 Tina Brown - US, 42
49 Princess Diana - UK, 34 Anglican
50 Susanna Agnelli - Italy, 73
51 Carol Bellamy - US, 54
52 Liliana Ferraro - Italy, 52
53 Carol Galley - UK, 47
54 Madonna - US, 38 Catholic; Kabbalah
55 Countess Marion Donhoff - Germany, 86
56 Jana Wendt - Australia, 39
57 Sylvia Toth - The Netherlands, 52
58 Imelda Marcos - Philippines, 67
59 Queen Sirikit - Thailand, 63 Buddhist
60 Irene Pivetti - Italy, 33
61 Cheryl Kernot - Australia, 47
62 Catherine Bertini - US, 46
63 Ritt Bjerregaard - Denmark, 54
64 Elizabeth Dole - US, 59 Presbyterian
65 Elizabeth Dowdeswell - Canada, 50
66 Takako Doi - Japan, 67
67 Anita DeFrantz - US, 43
68 Donna Karan - US, 47
69 Miriam Defensor Santiago - Philippines, 51
70 Helen Gurley Brown - US, 74
71 Elisabeth Guigou - France, 49
72 Janet Holmes a Court - Australia, 52
73 Bodil Nyboe Andersen - Denmark, 55
74 Heide Simonis - Germany, 52
75 Jutta Limbach - Germany, 61
76 Hanna Suchocka - Poland, 50
77 Wandira Kazibwe - Uganda, 42
78 Simone Veil - France, 68
79 Jennie George - Australia, 48
80 Rosalyn Higgins - UK, 58
81 Dame Leonie Kramer - Australia, 71
82 Irene Saez - Venezuela, 34
83 Megawati Sukarno - Indonesia, 49
84 Erika Emmerich - Germany, 52
85 Dai Qing - China, 55
86 Sirkka Hamalainen - Finland, 57
87 Roseanne - US, 42 Judaism; Latter-day Saint; Kabbalah
88 Winnie Mandela - South Africa, 61
89 Xuxa - Brazil, 32 Catholic
90 Irina Khakamada - Russia, 40
91 Helen Clark - New Zealand, 46
92 Esther Koplowitz - Spain, 44
93 Alicia Koplowitz - Spain, 42
94 Tatyana Mitkova - Russia, 40
95 Ilda Boccassini - Italy, 46
96 Francoise Baree-Sinoussi - France, 48
97 Emily Lau - China, 43
98 Mother Teresa - India, 85 Catholic
99 Betty Boothroyd - UK, 66
100 Christy Turlington - US, 27

 

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100 Most Important Women of the 20th Century

100 Most Important Women of the 20th Century The list below is from the book 100 Most Important Women of the 20th Century (Ladies' Home Journal Books: Des Moines, Iowa; 1998), edited by Lorraine Glennon. The individuals in the book are categorized into groups (Activists and Politicians; Writers and Journalists; Doctors and Scientists; Entrepreneurs; Artists and Entertainers; Athletes; Pioneers and Adventurers), and presented alphabetically within each group. The book does not attempt to rank these individuals, aside from identifying them collectively as the top 100 most influential women of the 20th Century. Text from inside book jacket: Women found their voice in the 20th Century. No longer silent and passive, no longer confined to kitchens and bedrooms, women today are educators and athletes, politicians and activists, doctors and adventurers. Women entrepreneurs boldly lead in business. Women scientists make breakthrough discoveries. Women journalists and writers suggest new ways of examining issues and events. As we head into the new millennium, one thing is certain: Women will never be the same. Neither will the world. Selected by a team of several top women historians from across the nation and the editors of Ladies' Home Journal, the women in this book helped bring about this major transformation. Narrowing the choice down to just 100 names was a daunting task. But some names practically suggested themselves. What would the world be like without Eleanor Roosevelt's compassionate local action? Or Rachel Carson's Silent Spring, which drew attention to the perils that unchecked pesticides held for our environment? Where would we be without the liberating message of freedom and equality from impassioned women like Betty Friedan, Margaret Sanger, Mary McLeod Bethune, and Gloria Steinem? Not everyone will agree with every choice made for this book. But let's face. One hundred volumes wouldn't do justice to the accomplishments of women in this past century. The women in this book will influence our lives for untold years to come. Activists and Politicians Jane Addams Madeleine Albright Anglican Mary McLeod Bethune Methodist Hillary Rodham Clinton Methodist Marian Wright Edelman Baptist Indira Gandhi Hindu Ruth Bader Ginsburg Jewish Emma Goldman Jewish Anita Hill Dolores Huerta Maggie Kuhn Golda Meir Jewish Rigoberta Menchu Sandra Day O'Connor Episcopalian Jacqueline Kennedy Onassis Catholic Rosa Parks Methodist Alice Paul Frances Perkins Episcopalian Eva Peron Jiang Qing Eleanor Roosevelt Episcopalian Phyllis Schlafly Gloria Steinem half-Jewish; Feminist, Humanist Daw Aung San Suu Kyi Buddhist Mother Teresa Catholic Margaret Thatcher Writers and Journalists Maya Angelou Hanna Arendt Rachel Carson Environmentalist Agatha Christie Simone de Beauvoir Catholic Anne Frank Jewish Betty Friedan Jewish Ann Landers Margaret Mitchell Toni Morrison Dorothy Parker half-Jewish Sylvia Plath Gertrude Stein Jewish Barbara Walters Laura Ingalls Wilder Virginia Woolf Neo-Pagan Doctors and Scientists Virginia Apgar Helen Caldicott Marie Curie Catholic (lapsed) Rosalind Franklin Jane Goodall Grace Hopper Melanie Klein Mary Leakey Barbara McClintock Lise Meitner Jewish-born Protestant Entrepreneurs Coco Chanel Julia Child Elsie de Wolfe Katharine Graham Jewish Ruth Handler Estee Lauder Jewish Jean Nidetch Mary Quant Martha Stewart Catholic Oprah Winfrey Protestant Artists and Entertainers Marian Anderson Baptist Lucille Ball Protestant; Dutch Reformed (Rev. Peale) Margaret Bourke-White Ethical Culture Maria Callas Isadora Duncan Ella Fitzgerald Jane Fonda born-again Christian Greta Garbo Lutheran Martha Graham Katharine Hepburn nominal Episcopalian background; atheist Billie Holiday Janis Joplin Churches of Christ Frida Kahlo Jewish Catholic Dorothea Lange Madonna Catholic; Kabbalah Marilyn Monroe Christian Science; temporary convert to Judaism Georgia O'Keeffe Episcopalian (nominal) Mary Pickford Catholic; Christian Science (convert) Leni Riefenstahl Lutheran Athletes Nadia Comaneci Babe Didrikson Gertrude Ederle Sonja Henie Billie Jean King Suzanne Lenglen Wilma Rudolph Pioneers and Adventurers Nancy Brinker Helen Gurley Brown Diana, Princess of Wales Amelia Earhart Betty Ford Episcopalian Helen Keller Swedenborgian Maria Montessori Jane Roe Margaret Sanger Atheist Valentina Tereshkova

 

 

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100 Women Who Shaped World History

100 Women Who Shaped World History

The list below is from the book 100 Women Who Shaped World History (Bluewood Books: San Francisco, CA, 1994), written by Gail Meyer Rolka.

The names in this list are listed in chronological order. This book does not purport to list the "most influential" women in history. The back cover states:

History is filled with thousands of people who have made significant accomplishments. However, among these are figures who have risen as true beacons of greatness--whose personal talent, striving and unique sense of vision have earned them a place in the annals of history. 100 Women Who Shaped World History provides capsule views of 100 such women whose indomitable spirit and desire to excel changed the course of world history. This book is a perfect desk reference for trivia fans and for anyone interested in learning more about the achievements and contributions of women.
Queen Makare Hatshepsut d. 1483 BC
Deborah c. 1150 BC Jewish
Sappho (Psappho) c. 600 BC
Aspasia c. mid-5th century BC
Cleopatra VII 69-30 BC
Mary, the Mother of Jesus Christ c. 22-20 BC Jewish; Christian icon
Boadicea (Boudicca) d. 60 AD
St. Helena c. 250-c. 330 AD Catholic
Zenobia (Septimia Bat Zabbai) c. 3rd century AD
Hypatia 370-415 AD pagan
Theodora 497-548 AD
Eleanor of Aquitaine 1122-1204 Catholic
Queen Tamara (Thamar) c. 1156-1212
Queen Margaret 1353-1412
Joan of Arc 1412-1431 Catholic
Isabella I 1451-1504 Catholic
Catherine of Aragon 1485-1536 Catholic
Catherine de Medicie 1519-1589 Catholic
Elizabeth I 1533-1603 Anglican
Queen Jinga (Jinga Mbandi) c. 1580-1663
Pocahontas (Matoaka) c. 1595-1617 Protestant
Mary Wortley Montagu 1689-1762
Emilie du Chatelet 1706-1749
Catherine the Great 1729-1796 Russian Orthodox
Caroline Herschel 1750-1848
Catherine Littlefield Greene 1755-1814
Maie Lavoisier 1758-1797
Mary Wollstonecraft 1759-1797 Unitarian
Sophie German 1776-1831
Elizabeth Fry 1780-1845
Mary Fairfax Somerville 1780-1872
Sacajawea ("Bird Woman") 1784?-1812 or 1884
La Saragossa (Maria Agustin) 1786-1857
Lucretia Coffin Mott 1793-1880 Quaker
Catherine Beecher 1800-1878
Dorothea Dix 1802-1887
Harriet Beecher Stowe 1811-1896 Congregationalist
Ada Lovelace 1815-1852
Charlotte Bronte 1816-1855 Anglican
Emily Bronte 1818-1848 Anglican
Elizabeth Cady Stanton 1815-1902
Lucy Stone 1818-1893
Mary Ann Evans (George Eliot) 1819-1880 Anglican; agnostic
Queen Victoria 1819-1901 Anglican
Susan B. Anthony 1820-1906 Quaker; Unitarian
Florence Nightingale 1820-1910 Anglican
Harriet Tubman c. 1820-1913 Methodist
Clara Barton 1821-1912
Elizabeth Blackwell 1821-1910 Quaker
Mary Baker Eddy 1821-1910 Christian Science
Lakshmi Bai, Rani of Jhansi c. 1830-1858
Mary Harris Jones (Mother Jones) 1830-1930
Louisa May Alcott 1832-1888
Sophia Jex-Blake 1840-1912
Annie Besant 1847-1933 Theosophy
Emma Lazarus 1849-1887 Jewish
Emmeline Pankhurst 1858-1928
Christabel Pankhurst 1880-1958
Carrie Chapman Catt 1859-1947
Jane Addams 1860-1935
Mary Kingsley 1862-1900
Marie Curie 1867-1934 Catholic (lapsed)
Sarah Breedlove Walker 1867-1919
Gertrude Bell 1868-1926
Alice Hamilton 1869-1970
Rosa Luxemburg 1870-1919 Jewish
Maria Montessori 1870-1952
Julia Morgan 1872-1957
Mary McLeod Bethune 1875-1955 Methodist
Helen Keller 1880-1968 Swedenborgian
Frances Perkins 1880-1965 Episcopalian
Emmy Noether 1882-1935
Margaret Higgins Sanger 1883-1966 Sanger
Eleanor Roosevelt 1884-1962 Episcopalian
Karen Horney 1885-1952
Sister Elizabeth Kenny 1886-1952
Louise Boyd 1887-1972
Lucila Godey Alcaya (Gabriela Mistral) 1889-1957 Jewish Catholic
Agatha Christie 1891-1976
Martha Graham 1984-1991
Anne Freud 1897-1937 Freudian Psychoanalysis; Atheist
Golda Meir 1898-1978 Jewish
Margaret Mead 1901-1978 Episcopalian
Marian Anderson 1902-1993 Baptist
Margaret Bourke-White 1904-1971 Ethical Culture
Rachel Carson 1907-1964 Environmentalist
Mother Teresa 1910-1997 Catholic
Rosa Parks 1913- Methodist
Mildred "Babe" Didrikson Zaharias 1914-1956
Indira Gandhi 1917-1984 Hindu
Betty Friedan 1921- Jewish
Shirley Chisholm 1924- Baptist
Margaret Thatcher 1925-
Anne Frank 1929-1945 Jewish
Toni Morrison 1931-
Corazon Aquino 1933-
Valentina Tereshkova 1937-
Marian Wright Edelman 1939- Baptist
Rigoberta Menchu 1959-

 

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The 100 Most Influential Women of All Time: A Ranking Past and Present

The 100 Most Influential Women of All Time: A Ranking Past and Present

The list below is from the book The 100 Most Influential Women of All Time: A Ranking Past and Present Carol Publishing Group (1995), written by Deborah G. Felder.

1 Eleanor Roosevelt Episcopalian
2 Marie Curie Catholic (lapsed)
3 Margaret Sanger Atheist
4 Margaret Mead Episcopalian
5 Jane Addams
6 Mary Wollstonecraft Unitarian
7 Susan B. Anthony Quaker; Unitarian
8 Elizabeth Cady Stanton atheist
9 Harriet Tubman Methodist
10 The Virgin Mary Jewish; Christian icon
11 Georgia O'Keeffe Episcopalian (nominal)
12 Frances Perkins Episcopalian
13 Jane Austen Anglican
14 Mary Harris "Mother" Jones
15 Simone de Beauvoir Catholic
16 Queen Elizabeth I Anglican
17 Rosa Parks Methodist
18 Helen Keller Swedenborgian
19 Anne Sullivan
20 Sojourner Truth Methodist; Seventh-day Adventist
21 Queen Isabella Catholic
22 Florence Nightingale Anglican
23 Karen Horney
24 Angelina Grimke
25 Sarah Moore Grimke
26 Elizabeth Blackwell Quaker
27 George Eliot Anglican; agnostic
28 Ida Bell Wells-Barnett
29 Betty Friedan Jewish
30 Rachel Carson Environmentalist
31 Ella Baker
32 Hannah Arendt Jewish
33 Mother Teresa Catholic
34 Melanie Klein
35 Emily Dickinson
36 Golda Meir Jewish
37 Virginia Woolf Neo-Pagan
38 Queen Victoria Anglican
39 Martha Graham
40 Zora Neale Hurston
41 Harriet Beecher Stowe Congregationalist
42 Rosa Luxemburg Jewish
43 Mary McLeod Bethune Methodist
44 Charlotte Bronte Anglican
45 Emily Bronte Anglican
46 Catherine the Great Russian Orthodox
47 Carrie Chapman Catt
48 Jane Goodall
49 Emma Goldman Jewish
50 Hillary Rodham Clinton Methodist
51 Coco Chanel
52 Grace Murray Hopper Jewish
53 Barbara McClintock
54 Gertrude Stein Jewish
55 Joan of Arc Catholic
56 Indira Gandhi Hindu
57 Louise Nevelson Jewish
58 Emrneline Pankhurst
59 Dorothea Lange
60 Agnes De Mille
61 Sappho
62 Nadia Boulanger
63 Gwendolyn Brooks
64 Maria Montessori
65 Marian Anderson Baptist
66 Anne Frank Jewish
67 Babe Didrikson Zaharias
68 Margaret Thatcher
69 Mary Cassatt
70 Sarah Bernhardt Jewish
71 Aung San Suu Kyi Buddhist
72 Amelia Earhart
73 Murasaki Shikibu Buddhist/Shinto culture
74 Toni Morrison
75 Gloria Steinem half-Jewish; Feminist, Humanist
76 Christine de Pisan
77 Margaret Bourke-White Ethical Culture
78 Frida Kahlo Jewish Catholic
79 Gabriela Mistral Jewish Catholic
80 Flannery O'Connor Catholic
81 Katharine Graham Jewish
82 Bessie Smith
83 Joan Ganz Cooney
84 Cleopatra
85 Jacqueline Bouvier Kennedy Onassis Catholic
86 Sandra Day O'Connor Episcopalian
87 Ruth Bader Ginsburg Jewish
88 Jessie Redmon Fauset
89 Wu Chao
90 Billie Holiday
91 Marilyn Monroe Christian Science;
temporary convert to Judaism
92 Frances Willard Methodist
93 Elisabeth Kubler-Ross
94 Mary Pickford Catholic; Christian Science (convert)
95 Leni Riefenstahl Lutheran
96 Katharine Hepburn nominal Episcopalian background; atheist
97 Billie Jean King
98 Princess Diana Anglican
99 Lucille Ball Protestant; Dutch Reformed (Rev. Peale)
100 Oprah Winfrey Protestant

 

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A Ranking of the Most Influential Novelists, Playwrights, and Poets of All Time

A Ranking of the Most Influential Novelists, Playwrights, and Poets of All Time



Related pages:
- The Novel 100: The 100 Greatest Novels of All Time
- The Fictional 100 and 100 Best Characters in Fiction Since 1900 (including info about authors who created the characters)
The list below is from the book The Literary 100: A Ranking of the Most Influential Novelists, Playwrights, and Poets of All Time (Checkmark Books/Facts On File, Inc.: New York, 2001), written by Daniel S. Burt.
Burt holds a Ph.D from New York University with a specialty in Victorian fiction and was for nine years a dean at Wesleyan University, where he has also taught literature courses since 1989. He is also the author of The Novel 100: A Ranking of the Greatest Novels of All Time.




1 William Shakespeare 1564-1616 Catholic; Anglican
2 Dante Alighieri 1265-1321 Catholic
3 Homer fl. c. 750(?) B.C. Greek paganism
4 Leo Tolstoy 1828-1910 Russian Orthodox
5 Geoffrey Chaucer c. 1340-1400 Catholic
6 Charles Dickens 1812-1870 Anglican
7 James Joyce 1882-1941 Catholic (lapsed)
8 John Milton 1608-1674 Congregationalist
9 Virgil 70-19 B.C.
10 Johann Wolfgang von Goethe 1749-1832 Deist
11 Miguel de Cervantes Saavedra 1547-1616 Catholic
12 Murasaki Shikibu c. 978-1030 Buddhist/Shinto culture
13 Sophocles 496-406 B.C.
14 William Faulkner 1897-1962 Presbyterian
15 Feodor Dostoevsky 1821-1881 Russian Orthodox
16 T.S. Eliot 1888-1965 Anglican
17 Marcel Proust 1871-1922 Jewish Catholic
18 Jane Austen 1775-1817 Anglican
19 George Eliot 1819-1880 Anglican; agnostic
20 William Butler Yeats 1865-1939 Church of Ireland (Anglican); astrology
21 Alexander Pushkin 1799-1837 Russian Orthodox
22 Euripides c. 480-406 B.C.
23 John Donne 1572-1631 Anglican; Catholic
24 Herman Melville 1819-1891 Transcendentalist
25 John Keats 1795-1821 Anglican
26 Ovid 43 B.C.-17 A.D.
27 Tu Fu 712-770
28 William Blake 1757-1827 Swedenborgian; occult
29 Aeschylus c. 525-456 B.C.
30 Gustave Flaubert 1821-1880 Catholic
31 Franz Kafka 1883-1924 Jewish
32 Moliere 1622-1673 Catholic
33 William Wordsworth 1770-1850 Anglican
34 Aristophanes c. 450-c. 385 B.C.
35 Thomas Mann 1875-1955 Lutheran
36 Henrik Ibsen 1828-1906
37 Anton Chekhov 1860-1904 Russian Orthodox
38 Henry James 1843-1916 Anglican
39 Vladimir Nabokov 1899-1977 Russian Orthodox
40 Walt Whitman 1819-1892 Quaker; Humanist; Transcendentalist
41 Honore de Balzac 1799-1850 Catholic
42 Jonathan Swift 1667-1745 Church of Ireland (Anglican)
43 Stendhal 1783-1842 Catholic
44 Thomas Hardy 1840-1928
45 George Bernard Shaw 1856-1950 Church of Ireland (Anglican); atheist, then mystic
46 Ernest Hemingway 1899-1961 Catholic
47 D. H. Lawrence 1885-1930
48 Charles Baudelaire 1821-1867 Catholic
49 Samuel Beckett 1906-1989 Church of Ireland (Anglican)
50 Virginia Woolf 1882-1941 Neo-pagan
51 Alexander Pope 1688-1744 Catholic
52 Francois Rabelais c. 1494-1553 Catholic
53 Francesco Petrarch 1304-1374 Catholic
54 Emily Dickinson 1830-1886
55 Edgar Allan Poe 1809-1849
56 Henry Fielding 1707-1754
57 Joseph Conrad 1857-1924 Catholic; atheist
58 Robert Browning 1812-1889 Anglican
59 Albert Camus 1913-1960 Catholic; Existentialism
60 Charlotte Bronte 1816-1855 Anglican
61 Emily Bronte 1818-1848 Anglican
62 Jean Racine 1639-1699 Catholic
63 Mark Twain 1835-1910 Presbyterian
64 August Strindberg 1849-1912
65 Emile Zola 1840-1902 Catholic
66 Jorge Luis Borges 1899-1986 Catholic; Quaker; agnostic
67 Cao Xueqin 1715-1763
68 Giovanni Boccaccio 1313-1375 Catholic
69 Voltaire 1694-1778 raised in Jansenism; later Deist
70 Laurence Sterne 1713-1768 Church of Ireland clergyman (Anglican)
71 William Makepeace Thackeray 1811-1863
72 Percy Bysshe Shelley 1792-1822 Anglican; atheist
73 Eugene O'Neill 1888-1953 Catholic
74 Wallace Stevens 1879-1955 Catholic
75 Lord Byron (George Gordon) 1788-1824
76 Gabriel Garcia Marquez 1928- Catholic
77 Walter Scott 1771-1832 Anglican
78 Pablo Neruda 1904-1973 Catholic
79 Robert Musil 1880-1942 Catholic
80 Alfred Lord Tennyson 1809-1892 Anglican
81 Flannery O'Connor 1925-1964 Catholic
82 Catullus c. 84-c. 54 B.C.
83 Federico Garcia Lorca 1898-1936 Catholic (some Jewish ancestry)
84 Nathaniel Hawthorne 1804-1864 Transcendentalist
85 Theodore Dreiser 1871-1945 Catholic; Congregationalist; Chrisitan Science
86 Ralph Ellison 1914-1994
87 Anthony Trollope 1815-1882 Anglican
88 F. Scott Fitzgerald 1896-1940 Catholic
89 Victor Hugo 1802-1885 Catholic
90 Rabindranath Tagore 1961-1941 Hindu
91 Daniel Defoe 1660?-1731 Protestant Dissenter (Presbyterian)
92 Gunter Grass 1927- Catholic
93 Lu Xun 1881-1936
94 E. M. Forster 1879-1970
95 Isaac Bashevis Singer 1904-1991 Jewish
96 Tanizaki Jun'ichiro 1886-1965
97 Richard Wright 1908-1960 Seventh-day Adventist; Communist
98 Gertrude Stein 1874-1946 Jewish
99 Zeami Motokiyo 1363-1443 Buddhist/Shinto culture
100 Oscar Wilde 1854-1900 Church of Ireland (Anglican); Catholic

 

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100 Books That Shaped World History

100 Books That Shaped World History

The list below comes from the book 100 Books That Shaped World History, Bluewood Books (2002), written by Miriam Raftery.

The books in the list below are NOT ranked by their relative influence. They are listed chronologically.



Epic of Gilgamesh (C. 2700-1500 B.C.)
The Egyptian Book of the Dead (C. 2400-1420 B.C.)
Iliad (C. 800 B.C.)
Aesop's Fables (C. 600-560 B.C.)
Hippocratic Corpus (C. 5th Century B.C.)
The History of Herodotus (C. 440 B.C.)
The Analects of Confucius (429 B.C.)
Republic (C. 378 B.C.)
Nicomachean Ethics (C. 330 B.C.)
On the Republic (51 B.C.)
Koran (C. A.D. 652)
The Tale of Genji (C. 1010)
The Travels of Marco Polo (C. 1300)
The Divine Comedy (C. 1320)
Gutenberg Bible (1455)
The Prince (1513)
Utopia (1516)
Ninety-Five Theses (1517)
The Fabric of the Human Body (1543)
On the Revolutions of the Celestial Spheres (1543)
Romeo and Juliet (1594)
Don Quixote De La Mancha (1605)
Treatise on Painting (1651)
The Pilgrim's Progress (1678; 1684)
Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy (1689)
Two Treatises of Government (1690)
Robinson Crusoe (1719)
Poor Richard's Almanack (1732-1757)
The Social Contract (1762)
Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations (1776)
Common Sense (1776)
The Federalist Papers (1787-1788)
A Vindication of the Rights of Woman (1792)
Cartagena Manifesto (1812)
Pride and Prejudice (1813)
The Last of the Mohicans (1826)
Nature (1836)
A Christmas Carol (1843)
Tales (1845)
Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass (1845)
Wuthering Heights (1847)
Civil Disobedience (1849)
David Copperfield (1849-1850)
The Scarlet Letter (1850)
Uncle Tom's Cabin (1851-1852)
Moby Dick (1851)
On the Origin of Species (1859)
Alice's Adventures in Wonderland (1865)
Das Kapital (1867)
Little Women (1868)
Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Sea (1870)
The Brothers Karamazov (1879-1880)
Treasure Island (1883)
The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn (1884)
War and Peace (1886)
A Study in Scarlet (1887)
The Jewish State (1896)
The War of the Worlds (1898)
The Interpretation of Dreams (1900)
Up From Slavery (1901)
The Story of my Life (1902)
The Call of the Wild (1903)
The Jungle (1906)
Riders of the Purple Sage (1912)
O Pioneers! (1913)
Sons and Lovers (1913)
Relativity: The Special and General Theory (1916)
Siddhartha (1922)
Ulysses (1922)
The Great Gatsby (1925)
Mein Kampf (1925; 1927)
The Sun also Rises (1926)
The Oxford English Dictionary (1928)
All Quiet on the Western Front (1929)
The Sound and the Fury (1929)
The Maltese Falcon (1930)
The Good Earth (1931)
Brave New World (1932)
Story of Civilization (1935-1975)
Gone with the Wind (1936)
The Grapes of Wrath (1939)
Native Son (1940)
The Common Sense Book of Baby and Child Care (1946)
Anne Frank: The Diary of a Young Girl (1947)
Cry, The Beloved Country (1948)
The Second World War (1948-1954)
The Catcher in the Rye (1951)
Lord of the Flies (1954)
To Kill a Mockingbird (1960)
Catch-22 (1961)
Silent Spring (1962)
The Feminine Mystique (1963)
Understanding Media: The Extensions of Man (1964)
Unsafe at any Speed (1965)
Quotations of Chairman Mao (1966)
One Hundred Years of Solitude (1967)
Bury my Heart at Wounded Knee (1971)
The Gulag Archipelago (1973-1975)
Beloved (1987)
A Brief History of Time, Updated and Expanded (1998)

 

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A Ranking of the Greatest Novels of All Time

The Novel 100:
A Ranking of the Greatest Novels of All Time

The list below is from the book The Novel 100: A Ranking of Greatest Novels All Time (Checkmark Books/Facts On File, Inc.: New York, 2004), written by Daniel S. Burt.

Burt holds a Ph.D from New York University with a specialty in Victorian fiction and was for nine years a dean at Wesleyan University, where he has also taught literature courses since 1989. He is also the author of The Novel 100: A Ranking of the Greatest Novels of All Time.

Note that in compiling the list of novels that was the basis for this book, Burt had to impose a number of constraints about what should be considered a novel. Although some works recognized as classics of science fiction (or, more broadly, speculative fiction) are on the list (e.g., Frankenstein; Dracula; Nineteen Eighty-Four), Burt specifically excluded works that seemed to veer too much from primarily naturalistic and contemporary-oriented narratives, thus excluding from consideration most science fiction and fantasy. Books such as Tolkien's The Lord of the Rings, Card's Ender's Game, Miller's A Canticle for Leibowitz and Frank Herbert's Dune were excluded from consideration as "novels." Burt's functional definition of "novel" used here (i.e., books belonging to the "novel genre" or, in most cases, the "literary novel genre") is thus narrower than how the word is used by the general public. From the book's introduction, pages ix-x:

What makes a listing of the greatest novels even more problematic is the lack of any consensus about which works rightfully constitute the genre... the novel is such a hybrid and adaptive genre, assimilating other prose and verse forms... A standard definition of the novel--an extended prose narrative--is so broad that it fails to limit the field usefully... I have been influenced in this regard, like many, by literary critic Ian Watt's groundbreaking 1957 study, The Rise of the Novel, which contends that the novel as a distinctive genre emerged in 18th-century England through the shifting of the emphasis of previous prose romances and their generalized and idealized characters, settings, and situations to a particularity of individual experience. In other words, the novel replaced the romance's interest in the general and the ideal with a concern for the particular. The here and now substituted for the romance's interest in the long ago and far away. As 18th-century novelist Clara Reece observed, "The Novel is a picture of real life and manners, and of the times in which it was written. The Romance, in lofty and elevated language, describes what has never happened nor is likely to." Novelists began to represent the actual world accurately, governed by the laws of probability.

...It would be far too reductive and misleading, however, to define the novel only by its realism or accurate representation of ordinary life... It would be far more accurate to say that the novel as a distinct genre attempts a synthesis between romance and realism, between a poetic, imaginative alternative to actuality and a more authentic representation. For purposes of my listing, I have narrowed the field by categorizing as novels works that engage in that synthesis. Some narrative works judged too far in the direction of fantasy--Rabelais's Gargantua and Pantagruel, Bunyan's The Pilgrim's Progress, Swift's Gulliver's Travels, Carroll's Alice in Wonderland--have been excluded. I have also made judgment calls on the question of the required length of a novel and have ruled out of contention such important fictional works as Joseph Conrad's Heart of Darkness and Franz Kafka's The Metamorphosis as falling short of the amplitude expected when confronting a novel.
Rank Title of Great Novel Year Author Religious Affiliation of Author
1 Don Quixote 1605, 1630 Miguel de Cervantes Catholic
2 War and Peace 1869 Leo Tolstoy Russian Orthodox
3 Ulysses 1922 James Joyce Catholic (lapsed)
4 In Search of Lost Time 1913-27 Marcel Proust Jewish Catholic
5 The Brothers Karamazov 1880 Feodor Dostoevsky Russian Orthodox
6 Moby-Dick 1851 Herman Melville Transcendentalist
7 Madame Bovary 1857 Gustave Flaubert Catholic
8 Middlemarch 1871-72 George Eliot Anglican; agnostic
9 The Magic Mountain 1924 Thomas Mann Lutheran
10 The Tale of Genji 11th Century Murasaki Shikibu Buddhist/Shinto culture
11 Emma 1816 Jane Austen Anglican
12 Bleak House 1852-53 Charles Dickens Anglican
13 Anna Karenina 1877 Leo Tolstoy Russian Orthodox
14 Adventures of Huckleberry Finn 1884 Mark Twain Presbyterian
15 Tom Jones 1749 Henry Fielding
16 Great Expectations 1860-61 Charles Dickens Anglican
17 Absalom, Absalom! 1936 William Faulkner Presbyterian
18 The Ambassadors 1903 Henry James Anglican
19 One Hundred Years of Solitude 1967 Gabriel Garcia Marquez Catholic
20 The Great Gatsby 1925 F. Scott Fitzgerald Catholic
21 To The Lighthouse 1927 Virginia Woolf Neo-pagan
22 Crime and Punishment 1866 Feodor Dostoevsky Russian Orthodox
23 The Sound and the Fury 1929 William Faulkner Presbyterian
24 Vanity Fair 1847-48 William Makepeace Thackeray
25 Invisible Man 1952 Ralph Ellison
26 Finnegans Wake 1939 James Joyce Catholic (lapsed)
27 The Man Without Qualities 1930-43 Robert Musil Catholic
28 Gravity's Rainbow 1973 Thomas Pynchon Catholic; agnostic
29 The Portrait of a Lady 1881 Henry James Anglican
30 Women in Love 1920 D. H. Lawrence
31 The Red and the Black 1830 Stendhal Catholic
32 Tristram Shandy 1760-67 Laurence Sterne Anglican (Church of Ireland clergyman)
33 Dead Souls 1842 Nikolai Gogol Russian Orthodox
34 Tess of the D'Urbervilles 1891 Thomas Hardy
35 Buddenbrooks 1901 Thomas Mann Lutheran
36 Le Pere Goriot 1835 Honore de Balzac Catholic
37 A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man 1916 James Joyce Catholic (lapsed)
38 Wuthering Heights 1847 Emily Bronte Anglican
39 The Tin Drum 1959 Gunter Grass Catholic
40 Molloy; Malone Dies; The Unnamable 1951-53 Samuel Beckett Church of Ireland (Anglican)
41 Pride and Prejudice 1813 Jane Austen Anglican
42 The Scarlet Letter 1850 Nathaniel Hawthorne Transcendentalist
43 Fathers and Sons 1862 Ivan Turgenev Russian Orthodox; agnostic
44 Nostromo 1904 Joseph Conrad Catholic; atheist
45 Beloved 1987 Toni Morrison
46 An American Tragedy 1925 Theodore Dreiser Catholic; Congregationalist; Chrisitan Science
47 Lolita 1955 Vladimir Nabokov Russian Orthodox
48 The Golden Notebook 1962 Doris Lessing
49 Clarissa 1747-48 Samuel Richardson
50 Dream of the Red Chamber 1791 Cao Xueqin
51 The Trial 1925 Franz Kafka Jewish
52 Jane Eyre 1847 Charlotte Bronte Anglican
53 The Red Badge of Courage 1895 Stephen Crane Methodist
54 The Grapes of Wrath 1939 John Steinbeck Episcopalian
55 Petersburg 1916/1922 Andrey Bely Russian Orthodox; Theosophy; Spiritualism
56 Things Fall Apart 1958 Chinue Achebe
57 The Princess of Cleves 1678 Madame de Lafayette
58 The Stranger 1942 Albert Camus Catholic; Existentialism
59 My Antonia 1918 Willa Cather Episcopalian
60 The Counterfeiters 1926 Andre Gide
61 The Age of Innocence 1920 Edith Wharton
62 The Good Soldier 1915 Ford Madox Ford Catholic; agnostic
63 The Awakening 1899 Kate Chopin Catholic
64 A Passage to India 1924 E. M. Forster
65 Herzog 1964 Saul Bellow Orthodox Jew (lapsed); Anthroposophist
66 Germinal 1855 Emile Zola Catholic
67 Call It Sleep 1934 Henry Roth Jewish
68 U.S.A. Trilogy 1930-38 John Dos Passos Catholic
69 Hunger 1890 Knut Hamsun
70 Berlin Alexanderplatz 1929 Alfred Doblin Catholic
71 Cities of Salt 1984-89 'Abd al-Rahman Munif
72 The Death of Artemio Cruz 1962 Carlos Fuentes Catholic
73 A Farewell to Arms 1929 Ernest Hemingway Catholic
74 Brideshead Revisited 1945 Evelyn Waugh Catholic
75 The Last Chronicle of Barset 1866-67 Anthony Trollope Anglican
76 The Pickwick Papers 1836-67 Charles Dickens Anglican
77 Robinson Crusoe 1719 Daniel Defoe Protestant Dissenter (Presbyterian)
78 The Sorrows of Young Werther 1774 Johann Wolfgang von Goethe Deist
79 Candide 1759 Voltaire raised in Jansenism; later Deist
80 Native Son 1940 Richard Wright Seventh-day Adventist; Communist
81 Under the Volcano 1947 Malcolm Lowry Methodist; Anglican; agnostic
82 Oblomov 1859 Ivan Goncharov
83 Their Eyes Were Watching God 1937 Zora Neale Hurston
84 Waverley 1814 Sir Walter Scott Anglican
85 Snow Country 1937, 1948 Kawabata Yasunari
86 Nineteen Eighty-Four 1949 George Orwell Anglican
87 The Betrothed 1827, 1840 Alessandro Manzoni Catholic
88 The Last of the Mohicans 1826 James Fenimore Cooper Episcopalian
89 Uncle Tom's Cabin 1852 Harriet Beecher Stowe Episcopalian; Congregationalist
90 Les Miserables 1862 Victor Hugo Catholic
91 On the Road 1957 Jack Kerouac Catholic; Buddhism
92 Frankenstein 1818 Mary Shelley
93 The Leopard 1958 Giuseppe Tomasi di Lampedusa Catholic
94 The Catcher in the Rye 1951 J.D. Salinger Jewish Catholic; Scientologist
95 The Woman in White 1860 Wilkie Collins
96 The Good Soldier Svejk 1921-23 Jaroslav Hasek Catholic
97 Dracula 1897 Bram Stoker Church of Ireland (Anglican)
98 The Three Musketeers 1844 Alexandre Dumas agnostic; Catholic
99 The Hound of Baskervilles 1902 Arthur Conan Doyle Catholic; Spiritualist
100 Gone with the Wind 1936 Margaret Mitchell Catholic

 

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A Ranking of the Latino Men and Women Who Have Most Influenced American Thought

A Ranking of the Latino Men and Women Who Have Most Influenced American Thought and Culture

The list below is from the book The Hispanic 100: A Ranking of the Latino Men and Women Who Have Most Influenced American Thought and Culture (Carol Publishing Group/Citadel Press: New York City, 1995), written by Himilce Novas.

1 Cesar Chávez (Cesar Chavez) 1927-1993
2 Henry Barbosa González (Henry Barbosa Gonzalez) 1916-
3 Luis Alvarez 1911-1988
4 Junípero Serra (Junipero Serra) 1713-1784
5 George Santayana 1863-1952
6 Pablo Casals 1876-1973
7 Desi Arnaz 1917-1986
8 Joan Baez 1941- Quaker (lapsed)
9 Antonio Novello 1944-
10 Plácido Domingo (Placido Domingo) 1941-
11 Henry Cisneros 1974-
12 Rita Hayworth 1918-1987
13 Oscar de la Renta 1932-
14 José Vicente Ferrer (Jose Vicente Ferrer) 1912-1992
15 Fabiola Cabeza de Baca Gilbert 1898-?
16 Roberto Goizueta 1931-
17 Edward R. Roybal 1916-
18 Herman Badillo 1929-
19 Rita Moreno 1931-
20 Geraldo Rivera 1943-
21 Linda Chávez (Linda Chavez) 1947-
22 Anthony Quinn 1915-
23 Chita Rivera 1933-
24 Adolfo 1933-
25 Roberto Clemente 1934-1972
26 Lee Travino 1939-
27 Gloria Estefan 1958-
28 Nancy López (Nancy Lopez) 1957-
29 Carlos Castañeda (Carlos Castaneda) 1925-
30 Linda Ronstadt 1946-
31 Marisol 1930-
32 José Limón (Jose Limon) 1908-1972
33 Dolores Huerta 1930-
34 Federico F. Peña (Federico F. Pena) 1947-
35 Ellen Ochoa 1958-
36 Martin Sheen 1940-
37 José Quintero (Jose Quintero) 1924-
38 Richard Rodriguez 1944-
39 Dennis Chávez (Dennis Chavez) 1888-1962
40 Joseph M. Montoya 1915-1978
41 Julio Iglesias 1943-
42 Raúl Julia (Raul Julia) 1944-1994
43 Gloria Molina 1948-
44 Ramón Novarro (Ramon Novarro) 1899-1968
45 Lou Piniella 1943-
46 Tito Puente 1923-
47 Richard "Pancho" Gonzáles (Richard "Pancho" Gonzales) 1928-1995
48 Luis Valdez 1940-
49 Ricardo Montalbán (Ricardo Montalban) 1920-
50 Bobby Bonilla 1963-
51 Jaime Escalante 1930(?)-
52 Rafael Chacón (Rafael Chacon) 1833-1925
53 Sandra Cisneros 1954-
54 Cesar Romero 1907-1994
55 José Feliciano (Jose Feliciano) 1945-
56 Rosemary Casals 1948-
57 Orlando Cepeda 1937-
58 Piri Thomas 1928-
59 Oscar De La Hoya 1973-
60 Oscar Hijuelos 1951-
61 Emilio Estévez (Emilio Estevez) 1962-
62 Raquel Welch 1940-
63 Andy García (Andy Garcia) 1956-
64 Dolores Del Rio 1905-1983
65 José Villarreal (Jose Villarreal) 1924-
66 Ritchie Valens 1941-1958
67 Pancho Segura 1921-
68 Gary Soto 1952-
69 Juan "Chi Chi" Rodriguez 1935-
70 Edward James Olmos 1947-
71 Trini López (Trini Lopez) 1937-
72 Vikki Carr 1940-
73 Fernando Valenzuela 1960-
74 Cherríe Moraga (Cherrie Moraga) 1952-
75 Tom Flores 1937-
76 María Grever (Maria Grever) 1885-1951
77 Mary Joe Fernández (Mary Joe Fernandez) 1971-
78 Keith Hernández (Keith Hernandez) 1953-
79 José Greco (Jose Greco) 1918-
80 Justin Dìaz (Justin Diaz) 1940-
81 Fernando Bujénes (Fernando Bujones) 1955-
82 Katherine D. Ortega 1934-
83 Ramón Cortines (Ramon Cortines) 1932-
84 Jim Plunkett 1947-
85 José Canseco (Jose Canseco) 1964-
86 Miriam Colón (Miriam Colon) 1930(?)-
87 Charlie Sheen 1965-
88 Julia Alvarez 1950-
89 Celia Cruz 1929(?)-
90 Gigi Fernández (Gigi Fernandez) 1964-
91 Ileana Ros-Lehtinen 1952-
92 Rosie Pérez (Rosie Perez) 1970(?)-
93 Carlos Montoya 1903-1993
94 Nydia Margarita Velázquez (Nydia Margarita Velazquez) 1953-
95 Gilbert Roland 1905-1994
96 Mariah Carey 1970(?)-
97 Antonio Moreno 1886-1967
98 Lourdes López (Lourdes Lopez) 1958-
99 Lucille Roybal-Allard 1941-
100 Elizabeth Peña (Elizabeth Pena) 1959-
100 Hispanic-Americans Who Shaped American History

The list below is from the book 100 Hispanic-Americans Who Shaped American History, Bluewood Books (2002), written by Rick Laezman.

The individuals in this book are not ranked relative to each other. They are listed chronologically by birth.



Juan Ponce de Leon 1460-1521
Pedro Menendez de Aviles 1519-1574
Juan de Onate 1550-1630
Junipero Serra 1713-1784
Juan Bautista de Anza 1735-1788
Bernardo de Galvez 1746-1786
Manuel Lisa 1772-1820
Antonio Jose Martinez 1793-1867
Maria Gertrudes Barcelo 1800-1852
David Farragut 1801-1870
Pio De Jesus Pico 1801-1894
Juan N. Seguin 1806-1890
Mariano Vallejo 1808-1890
Romualdo Pacheco 1831-1899
Joaquin Murieta 1832-1853
Carlos Juan Finlay and
Juan Guiteras 1852-1925
1833-1915
Rafael Guastavino 1842-1908
Lola Rodriquez de Tio 1843-1924
George Santayana 1863-1952
Sara Estela Ramirez 1881-1910
Ignacio E. Lozano 1886-1953
Lucrezia Bori 1887-1960
Dennis Chavez 1888-1962
Maria Latigo Hernandez 1893-1986
Carlos Castaneda 1896-1958
Xavier Cugat 1900-1990
Severo Ochoa 1905-1993
Jose Arcadia Limon 1908-1972
Carmen Miranda 1909-1955
Luis Alvarez 1911-1988
Hector Perez Garcia 1914-1996
Anthony Quinn 1915-2001
Henry B. Gonzales 1916-1998
Emma Tenayuca 1916-1999
Edward Roybal 1916-
Desi Arnaz 1917-1986
Bert Corona 1918-2001
Jose Yglesias 1919-1995
Jose P. Martinez 1920-1943
Ricardo Montalban 1920-
Alicia Alonso 1921-
Antonia Pantoja 1922-
Tito Puente 1923-2000
Celia Cruz 1924-
Romana Acosta Banuelos 1925-
Reies Lopez Tijerina 1926-
Cesar Chavez 1927-1993
Lauro F. Cavazos 1927-
Carmen Zapata 1927-
Reuben Salazar 1928-1970
Richard "Pancho" Gonzales 1928-1995
Rodolfo "Corky" Gonzales 1928-
Jaime Escalante 1930-
Maria Irene Fornes 1930-
Dolores Huerta 1930-
Marisol 1930-
Lupe Serrano 1930-
Roberto C. Goizueta 1931-1997
Rita Moreno 1931-
Oscar De La Renta 1932-
Roberto Clemente 1934-1972
Nicholasa Mohr 1935-
Martha P. Cotera 1938-
Carolina Herrera 1939-
Lee Trevino 1939-
Vicki Carr 1940-
Luis Valdez 1940-
Victor Villasenor 1940-
Joan Baez 1941- Quaker (lapsed)
Lucille Roybal-Allard 1941-
Clarissa Pinkola Estes 1943-
Vilma Martinez 1943-
Geraldo Rivera 1943
William C. Velasquez 1944-1988
Jose Angel Gutierrez 1944-
Antonia Novello 1944-
Richard Rodriguez 1944-
Judith Baca 1946-
Linda Ronstadt 1946-
Henry Cisneros 1947-
Edward James Olmos 1947-
Federico Pena 1947-
Carlos Santana 1947-
Ruben Blades 1948-
Rosemary Casals 1948-
Cristina Saralegui 1948-
Oscar Hijuelos 1951-
Aliza Lifshitz 1951-
Ileana Ros-Lehtinen 1952-
Gary Soto 1952-
Nydia Margarita Velazquez 1953-
Sandra Cisneros 1954-
Maria Elena Durazo 1954-
Nancy Lopez 1957-
Gloria Estefan 1958-
Ellen Ochoa 1958-
Loretta Sanchez 1960-
Sammy Sosa 1968-
Selena 1971-1995
Oscar De La Hoya

 

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The 100 Most Influential Figures in Modern Business

Movers & Shakers:
The 100 Most Influential Figures in Modern Business



The list below is from the book Movers & Shakers: The 100 Most Influential Figures in Modern Business (Bloomsbury Publishing: Cambridge, MA, © 2003). The 100 names in this book are listed grouped in two different sections, and listed alphabetically.

Text from the back cover:

Ultimately, business is about people--investors, visionaries, courageous leaders who forge new paths. Movers and Shakers brings to life 100 men and women who built companies and industries, created new ways of doing business, or advanced the art and science of management. From the robber barons of the early, brawny years of the twentieth century to the techno-wizards at the beginning of the twenty-first, Movers and Shakers introduces the gurus and giants who left indelible marks on the business landscape.
Expanding on the rich database of information assembled for the landmark reference Business: The Ultimate Resource, and including many completely original entries, this book reveals the defining moments that changed business history. Colorful, incisive, and entertaining, Movers and Shakers illuminates the larger-than-life figures who have, indeed, created business as we know it today.

Management Thinkers

R. Meredith Belbin 1926-
Warren Bennis 1925-
Kenneth Blanchard 1939-
Dale Carnegie 1888-1955
Alfred D. Chandler, Jr. 1918- Episcopalian
Stephen R. Covey 1932- Latter-day Saint
W. Edwards Deming 1900-1993
Peter Drucker 1909-
Mary Parker Follett 1868-1933
Ghoshal and Bartlett
Frank and Lillian Gilbreth 1868-1924 (Frank); 1878-1972 (Lillian)
Charles Handy 1932-
Frederick Herzberg 1923-2000
Joseph M. Juran 1904-
Rosabeth Moss Kantor 1943-
Kaplan and Norton
Thodore Levitt 1925-
Niccolo Machiavelli 1469-1527 Catholic
Ikujiro Nonaka 1935-
Kenichi Ohmae 1943-
Tom Peters 1942-
Michael Porter 1947-
Edgar Schein 1928-
Adam Smith 1723-1790 Liberal Protestant
Sun Tzu c. 400
Frederick Winslow Taylor 1856-1915
Max Weber 1864-1920


Business Giants

Marc Andreessen 1971
Phileas Taylor Barnum 1810-1891 Universalist
Lord Beaverbrook (William Maxwell Aitken) 1879-1964
Jeffrey Bezos 1964-
William Boeing 1881-1956
Richard Branson 1950- atheist
Warren Buffett 1930- atheist
Leo Burnett 1891-1971
Andrew Carnegie 1835-1919 Presbyterian
Willis Haviland Carrier 1876-1950
Walter Percy Chrysler 1875-1940
Jim Clark 1944-
Michael Dell 1965- Jewish
Walter Elias Disney (Walt Disney) 1901-1966 Congregationalist
James Buchanan Duke 1856-1925
George Eastman 1854-1932
Thomas Alva Edison 1847-1931 Congregationalist; agnostic
Michael Eisner 1942- Jewish
Larry Ellison 1944- Jewish
Enzo Ferrari 1898-1988 Catholic
Henry Ford 1863-1947 Protestant
Bill Gates 1955-
Harold Geneen 1910-1997
Louis Frederick Gerstner 1942-
Jean Paul Getty 1892-1976
King Camp Gillette 1855-1932
Roberto Goizueta 1931-1997
Andrew S. Grove 1936- Jewish
William Randolph Hearst 1863-1951 Catholic
Milton Snavely Hershey 1857-1945 Jewish
Conrad Nicholson Hilton 1887-1979 Catholic
Soichiro Honda 1906-1992
Howard Robard Hughes, Jr. 1905-1975
Lee Iacocca 1924- Catholic
Steve Jobs 1955-2003 Lutheran; Buddhist
Phil Knight 1938-
Ray Kroc 1902-1984
Edwin Land 1909-1991
Estee Lauder 1908- Jewish
Ralph Lauren 1939 Jewish
Henry Robinson Luce 1898-1967
Konosuke Matsushita 1894-1989
Louis B. Mayer 1885-1957 Jewish
Cyrus Hall McCormick 1809-1884
Scott McNealy 1954-
Charles Merrill 1855-1956
J. P. Morgan 1837-1913 Episcopalian
Akio Morita 1921-1999
Rupert Murdoch 1931- Jewish and/or Catholic
David Ogilby 1911-1999
Jorma Jaakko Ollila 1950-
Pierre Omidyar 1967-
David Packard 1912-1996
John H. Patterson 1844-1922
Arthur Rock 1926 Jewish
John D. Rockefeller 1839-1937 Baptist
Anita Roddick 1942-
Julius Rosenwald 1862-1932 Jewish
David Sarnoff 1891-1970 Jewish
Alfred P. Sloan, Jr. 1875-1955
Martha Stewart 1941- Catholic
Levi Strauss 1829-1902 Jewish
Eiji Toyoda 1913-
Robert Edward Turner III (Ted Turner) 1938- raised Catholic/Episcopal;
now agnostic or atheist
Cornelius Vanderbilt 1794-1877
Samuel Walton 1918-1992 Presbyterian
Paul Warburg 1868-1932 Jewish
Thomas J. Watson, Sr. 1874-1956
Jack Welch 1935-
Frederick Weyerhaeuser 1834-1914
Oprah Winfrey 1954- Protestant
Robert Winship Woodruff 1889-1985
Frank Winfield Woolworth

 

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The Wealthy 100

The Wealthy 100:
From Benjamin Franklin to Bill Gates - A Ranking of the Richest Americans, Past and Present
The list below is from the book The Wealthy 100: From Benjamin Franklin to Bill Gates - A Ranking of the Richest Americans, Past and Present, Citadel Press (1996), written by Michael Klepper and Robert Gunther.
John D. Rockefeller Oil
Cornelius Vanderbilt Shipping
John Jacob Astor Fur/Land
Stephen Girard Banking
Andrew Carnegie Steel
Alexander Turney Stewart Retailing
Frederick Weyerhaeuser Lumber
Jay Gould Finance
Stephen Van Rensselaer Land (inherit)
Marshall Field Retailing/Land
Henry Ford Automobiles
Andrew W. Mellon Banking
Richard B. Mellon Banking
Sam Moore Walton Retailing
James G. Fair Mining
William Weightman Chemicals
Moses Taylor Banking
Russell Sage Finance
John I. Blair Railroads
Cyrus H. K. Curtis Publishing
Edward Henry Harriman Railroads
Henry Huddleston Rogers Oil
John Pierpont Morgan Finance
Col. Oliver H. Payne Oil/Finance
Henry C. Frick Steel
Collis Potter Huntington Railroads
Peter A. Widener City Transit
James Cair Flood Mining
Nicholas Longworth Land
Philip Danforth Armour Meatpacking
Bill Gates Software
Mark Hopkins Railroads
Edward Clark Sewing machines
Leland Stanford Railroads
William Rockefeller Oil
Hetty Green Finance
James Jerome Hill Railroads
Elias Hasket Derby Merchant/Shipping
Warren Buffett Finance
Claus Spreckels Sugar
George Peabody Finance
Charles Crocker Railroads
William Andrews Clark Mining
George Eastman Photography
Charles L. Tiffany Jewelry
Thomas Fortune Ryan City Transit
Edward Stephen Harkness Oil (inheritance)
Henry M. Flagler Oil/Resorts
James Buchanan Duke Tobacco
Israel Thorndike Merchant/Shipping
William S. O'Brien Mining
Issac Merritt Singer Sewing machines
George Hearst Mining
John Hancock Merchant/Shipping Congregationalist
John W. Garrett Railroads
John W. Mackay Mining
Julius Rosenwald Catalog retailing
George F. Baker Banking
George Washington Land
Anthony N. Brady Transit/Utilities
Adolphus Busch Beer
John T. Dorrance Canned goods
George M. Pullman Railroad cars
Robert Wood Johnson, Jr. Medical supplies
John Francis Dodge Automobiles
Horace Elgin Dodge Automobiles
J. Paul Getty Oil
William H. Aspinwall Shipping
Johns Hopkins Merchant/Railroads
John Werner Kluge Communications
Samuel Colt Guns
James Stillman Banking
William Collins Whitney Transit
William Thaw Canals/Railroads
Paul Allen Software
Cyrus H. McCormick Farm equipment
Arthur Vining Davis Aluminum
Thomas Handasyd Perkins Merchant/Shipping
Joseph Pulitzer Publishing
Daniel Willis James Merchant
Howard Hughes Oil/Aviation
Frank W. Woolworth Retailing
John McDonogh Land
Samuel Slater Textiles
August Belmont Finance
Benjamin Franklin Land/Printing
Sumner Murray Redstone Communications
Capt. Robert Dollar Shipping
Richard Warren Sears Catalog retailing
H. L. Hunt Oil
Jay Van Direct merchandising
Richard Marvin DeVos Direct merchandising
Henry Phipps Steel
Lawrence J. Ellison Software
Ronald Owen Perelman Finance
Peter Chardon Brooks Merchant/Shipping
Charles W. Post Cereals
Samuel I. Newhouse Publishing
William Wrigley, Jr. Chewing gum
David Packard Computers

 

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A Ranking of the Most Influential Figures of the Second World War2

The World War II 100:
A Ranking of the Most Influential Figures of the Second World War



The list below is from the book The World War II 100: A Ranking of the Most Influential Figures of the Second World War, New Page Books (2001), written by Howard J. Langer.

1 Adolf Hitler Cruel and Cunning Nazism; born into but rejected Catholicism;
allegedly a proponent of Germanic Neo-Paganism
2 Franklin D. Roosevelt Risking Impeachment Episcopalian
3 Winston S. Churchill From Defeat, Defiance Anglican
4 Joseph Stalin Ruthless and Paranoid Russian Orthodox; Atheist; Marxism
5 George C. Marshall First in War, First in Peace Episcopalian
6 Isoruku Yamamoto Planning Pearl Harbor state Shinto
7 Dwight D. Eisenhower Leader of the Coalition Jehovah's Witness; Presbyterian
8 Douglas MacArthur "I Shall Return."
9 Jimmy Doolittle The Raider from "Shangri-La"
10 Douglas Bader Legend of the RAF
11 George S. Patton The Fightingest Field Commander
12 Heinz Guderian Master of the Blitzkreig
13 Albert Einstein The Pacifist Who Won the War Jewish
14 Harry S Truman "The Buck Stops Here." Baptist
15 Stewart Menzies Master of the Ultra Secret
16 Bertram Ramsay A Miracle at Dunkirk
17 Georgi Zhukov Stalin's Toughest General
18 Chester Nimitz Up from the Canvas
19 Husband E. Kimmel, Walter Short Foul-Ups---or Fall Guys?
20 Ernest J. King "No Fighter Ever Won by Covering Up."
21 Henry L. Stimson Bipartisanship in Time of Peril
22 Harry L. Hopkins "Lord Root-of-the-Matter"
23 William Stephenson The Spy in Rockefeller Center
24 William J. Donovan American Spymaster
25 Reinhard Heydrich Plots and Paranoia
26 William F. Halsey The Navy's "Patton"
27 Henri Petain The Man from Vichy
28 Alan Brooke Churchill's "Marshall"
29 Hideki Tojo A Time for Hara-Kiri state Shinto
30 J. Robert Oppenheimer "I Am Become Death..." Jewish
31 Wernher von Braun Father of the V-2 Lutheran
32 Leslie R. Groves Director of the Manhattan Project
33 Omar Bradley The G.I.'s General
34 Arthur Harris The 1,000-Plane Raider
35 Thomas Kinkaid In the Spirit of John Paul Jones
36 C.A.F. Sprague "Combustible, Vulnerable, Expendable"
37 Bernard Montgomery He Chased the Desert Fox
38 Takeo Kurita A Sea Battle and an Election
39 Erwin Rommel Destination: Suez?
40 William Friedman Shakespeare, Bacon, and the Purple Code
41 Henry H. Arnold Champion of Airpower
42 Vasily Chuikov Hero of Stalingrad
43 Hermann Goering From Air Ace to War Criminal
44 Joseph Goebbels Propagandist to the End
45 Masaharu Homma A Question of Responsibility
46 Alfred Jodl Unconditional Surrender
47 Konstantin Rokossovsky The Captive Hero
48 Wilhelm Keitel The Man Who Obeyed Orders
49 Emperor Hirohito The Last Word state Shinto
50 Benito Mussolini Hitler's Junior Partner Catholic
51 Charles De Gaulle Leader of Free France
52 Joachim von Ribbentrop The Role of the Deal-Maker
53 Vyacheslav M. Molotov Man of the Hammer
54 Semyon Timoshenko Rebuilder of the Red Army
55 William L. Shirer From Reporter to Historian
56 Gerd von Rundstedt The Fuhrer's Bluntest General
57 Friedrich von Paulus The Field Marshal and the Corporal
58 Tomoyuki Yamashita The Tiger of Malaya state Shinto
59 Jean Darlan Behind the North African Landings
60 Frank Knox From Rough Rider to Navy Boss
61 Josip Broz (Tito) Guerrilla Warfare
62 Maurice Gamelin How France Lost the War
63 Robert Murphy A "Diplomat Among Warriors"
64 Karl Doenitz Commander of the U-boats
65 Heinrich Himmler The Fuhrer's Hit Man Catholic
66 Neville Chamberlain The Great Appeaser?
67 Anthony McAuliffe Crisis at Bastogne
68 Gustav Krupp/Alfred Krupp The Family Business
69 Andrew Jackson Higgins Eureka!
70 Edward R. Murrow "This...is London." Quaker
71 Ernie Pyle The Little Guy's War
72 Bill Mauldin Up Front
73 Breckinridge Long Silent Partner of the Holocaust?
74 Pietro Badoglio Surrendering Italy
75 Francisco Franco Prelude to a World War Catholic
76 Harold Alexander Ike's First Choice
77 Albert Speer The Slave Master
78 Eleanor Roosevelt/Madame Chiang The Feminine Mystique Episcopalian/?
79 Lavrenti Beria Scorched Earth and Non-Persons
80 Galeazzo Ciano Mussolini's Heir Apparent
81 Eduard Benes Humiliation at Munich
82 Wladyslaw Sikorski Betrayal and Death
83 Joseph W. Stilwell The Mission That Failed
84 Jonathan Wainwright Last Message from Corregidor
85 The Sullivan Brothers/The Four Chaplains On Brotherhood
86 Charles Lindbergh The Isolationists' Poster Boy
87 Chiang Kai-shek The Agony of China Methodist
88 Tadeusz Bor-Komorowski Leader of an Underground Army
89 Claus von Stauffenberg The Plot That Failed
90 Anne Frank Keeping a Diary Jewish
91 Adolf Eichmann "Terribly and Terrifyingly Normal"
92 Robert Jackson Judgment at Nuremburg
93 Henry Morgenthau A Plan for Germany
94 Cordell Hull Architect of the United Nations
95 George VI/Christian X/Leopold III Crowned Heads, Royal Symbols
96 Haile Selassie The Plea That Failed Rastafarian deity
97 Mordecai Anielewicz He Fought Back
98 Joseph P. Kennedy A Controversial Ambassador
99 Paul Reynaud A Voice in the Wilderness
100 Pope Pius XII The Sound of Silence Catholic

 

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100 Most Influential People in IT

100 Most Influential People in IT

By Staff Reports
2008-04-04
The editorial staffs of eWEEK and sister publications CIO Insight and Baseline put their heads together to name the Top 100 Most Influential People in IT.

To come up with this year’s list, we looked for people who not only had a tangible track record of IT success, but also have far-reaching influence, the ability to effect change and a deep level of engagement in developing emerging technologies.

For more on the top 25, check out eWEEK's slide show.

The last criteria is especially important, as we wanted to highlight the people who are on the leading edge of technology development—those who are shaping not only the products we use and the model by which they are delivered, but also the way in which we work.


1. Larry Ellison

CEO, Oracle

Ellison's plan to roll up the enterprise applications' space has shown no sign of slowing. Oracle has leveraged its strength in the data center to cement its status as one of the world's most important applications and middleware vendors. For more on Ellison's influence, click here.

2. Steve Jobs
CEO, Apple
Apple’s influence is being increasingly felt in the enterprise.

3. Steve Ballmer
CEO, Microsoft
Microsoft has certainly had some challenges of late. Now, the company moves forward—with Ballmer at the helm.

4. Sam Palmisano
Chairman and CEO, IBM
Palmisano has positioned IBM to generate great returns in a mature market—by expanding internationally and finding opportunities in the enterprise applications' space.

5. Marissa Mayer
Vice president, search products and user experience, Google
Mayer oversees the way Google's search engine is constructed and how usable it is to people all over the world.

6. Jean-Philippe Courtois
President, Microsoft International, Microsoft
Courtois leads global sales, marketing and services for Microsoft International in more than 240 countries outside the United States and Canada.

7. Joe Tucci
Chairman, president and CEO, EMC
Tucci is taking EMC on a trip beyond storage.

8. Mark Hurd
Chairman, president and CEO, Hewlett-Packard
Hurd has beefed up HP’s software division and its services portfolio.

9. John Chambers
Chairman and CEO, Cisco Systems
IP is increasingly becoming the channel by which all communication travels, and Cisco is providing not only the plumbing, but also the applications.

10. Larry Page & Sergey Brin
President of products and president of technology, respectively, Google
The founders of Google changed expectations for search engines, and now they’re doing the same with a growing suite of applications that have paved the way for a top-down model of technology implementation.

11. John Johnson
CIO, Intel
Johnson undertook one of the world’s largest mobile computing efforts: Some 85 percent of Intel employees are now free from their desktops, resulting in
double-digit productivity gains.

12. Kevin Turner
COO, Microsoft
The former Wal-Mart exec has succeeded as COO—while other outsiders have floundered in the role.

13. Ray Ozzie
Chief software architect, Microsoft
Outside Microsoft, Ozzie is known as the person responsible for the company’s forward-thinking services' strategy. Within some quarters of Microsoft, he is known for building out the services' vision and platform, while letting other executives take credit.

14. Marc Benioff
CEO, Salesforce.com

Benioff was at the forefront of the SAAS (software as a service) revolution, and he continues to lead the charge.

15. Linus Torvalds
Developer, Linux Foundation
He developed Linux, which is arguably the first open-source app widely used in the enterprise, and his influence on the kernel continues to be felt on a day-to-day basis.

16. Jonathan Schwartz
President and CEO, Sun
Hitching his company’s horse to open source, Schwartz is making sure the Sun doesn’t set.

17. Jeff Bezos
Chairman and CEO, Amazon.com
Bezos is constantly evolving Amazon.com, from Web-based bookseller to uber-online retailer to cloud computing provider.

18. Michael Dell
CEO, Dell
Dell is back and ready to rumble in the enterprise space.

19. Barbara Desoer
CTO & COO, Bank of America
Banks, mortgages and acquisitions all come together in her tech operations during a difficult economic time.

20. Diane Greene
President and CEO, VMware
Greene believed in virtualization when no one else did. Now she has to defend VMware’s turf as virtualization becomes common wisdom.

21. Nandan Nilekani
Co-chairman, Infosys Technologies
Nilekani has been instrumental in making India an IT force and is still coming on strong.

22. Mendel Rosenblum
Chief scientist, VMware
Rosenblum has enormous influence over the development of the hypervisor and is working on new areas for the company to explore.

23. Rob Carter
CIO, FedEx
Carter is widely considered the most innovative and effective CIO in the United States.

24. Peter Weill
Director, Center for Information Systems Research
As the director and senior research scientist at CISR, a research group at the MIT Sloan School of Management, Weill conducts research on the role and value of IT in the enterprise.

25. Henning Kagermann
Co-CEO, SAP
SAP software is used at all the big companies, and Kagermann would like it to run at small and midsize companies, too. It was recently announced that Kagermann will share the post of CEO with Leo Apotheker. Kagermann plans to step down in 2009.


26. Bob Muglia
Senior vice president, Server and Tools Business, Microsoft
If Microsoft's launches of the 2008 versions of SQL Server, Visual Studio and Windows Server go well, the future is Muglia’s.

27. Azim Premji
Chairman, Wipro Technologies
Premji has led Wipro, of Bangalore, India, since 1966, when it was a cooking fat company. Today, Wipro has $5 billion in revenue and it provides IT services via a global delivery platform.

28. Scott Guthrie
Corporate vice president, .Net Developer Platform, Microsoft

Guthrie oversees several development teams responsible for delivering Visual Studio tools and .Net Framework technologies.

29. Eva Chen
CEO, Trend Micro
Under Chen’s leadership, Trend Micro continues to engineer security software that outperforms the competitions.

30. Brendan Eich
CTO, Mozilla Corp.
Eich helps ensure that the browser is up to the task of acting as the operating system— running an increasing number of mission-critical enterprise applications in the cloud.

31. John Halamka
CIO, CareGroup Health System, Harvard Medical School and Harvard Clinical Research Institute
In addition to his CIO role, Dr. Halamka serves as an e-health adviser to both Microsoft and Google.

32. Paul Otellini
President and CEO, Intel
Otellini has helped get Intel back on track as the top producer of x86 processors for servers, desktops and laptops after struggling against Advanced Micro Devices for years.

33. Rollin Ford
CIO, Wal-Mart
The world’s largest retailer, Wal-Mart, sets technology direction.

34. Steve Mills
Senior vice president and group executive, IBM
Mills oversees all of IBM’s software efforts.

35. Tim Berners-Lee
Director, World Wide Web Consortium
The inventor of the Web—and the man who’s envisioning its future with the Semantic Web.

36. Kevin Martin
Chairman, Federal Communications Commission
Martin sets the telecommunications agenda, with his influence keenly felt lately around spectrum and net neutrality issues.

37. Michael Howard
Principal security program manager, Microsoft
Howard is co-author of Microsoft’s Security Development Lifecycle. His influence is so significant that companies outside of Microsoft are implementing their own versions of SDL.

38. Andrew McAfee
Associate professor, Harvard Business School
McAfee is a torchbearer for the emerging Enterprise 2.0 market.

39. Nicholas Negroponte
Founder, One Laptop Per Child
Negroponte, also founder and chairman emeritus of MIT’s Media Lab, rocked the IT industry with the introduction of the XO—as much for the laptop’s technology innovations as for the project’s philanthropic spirit.

40. Mark Zuckerberg
Founder, Facebook
The 23-year-old Zuckerberg stole the social networking crown from MySpace and has built a thriving community of third-party developers.

41. Elizabeth Hight
Navy rear admiral, vice director, Defense Information Systems Agency
Nominated to take over DISA, Hight is also commander of the Joint Task Force for Global Network Operations—a big job any time, but really tough during wartime.

42. Jack Ma Yun
CEO, Alibaba
His Alibaba efforts—an English-language business-to-business site for international buyers looking to contact Chinese sellers and a Chinese language site focused on B2B trades inside China—lead China’s burgeoning e-commerce market.

43. Window Snyder
Chief security something or other, Mozilla
A former Microsoft security strategist, Snyder borrowed a page from Redmond’s playbook and introduced a comprehensive threat-modeling and penetration-testing routine to Mozilla.

44. Robert LeBlanc
General manager, IBM Global Consulting Services and SOA
LeBlanc is leading the all-important SOA charge at IBM.

45. Marc Andreessen
Entrepreneur
Co-author of Mosaic, co-founder of Netscape, chairman of Opsware and now co-founder of Ning, an up-and-coming social network platform. We’re starting to lose track of Andreessen’s many tech lives—and wide-ranging influence.

46. Tony Scott
CIO, Microsoft
Scott oversees Microsoft’s 4,000-person IT operation, whose practice of “eating its own dog food” makes Scott an early indicator of whether new products are ready for enterprise consumption.

47. Randall Stephenson
Chairman, AT&T
Back from being broken up, AT&T is now calling the shots for a mobile world.

48. Ralph Szygenda
CIO, General Motors

Still the general of CIOs, but his company is challenged.

49. Marc Tremblay
Sun fellow, senior vice president and chief architect of microelectronics, Sun Microsystems
Tremblay helped develop the UltraSPARC family of processors and now the “Rock,” a processor set for release in 2009 designed with parallel computing in mind.

50. Mark Lewis
President, Content Management and Archiving Division, EMC
Previously EMC CTO, Lewis leads the division that helps companies create value from all the data EMC technology stores.


51. Michal Zalewski
Information security engineer, Google
Before joining the search company, Zalewski launched an all-out assault on the security models of modern Web browsers, exposing critical vulnerabilities in Microsoft’s Internet Explorer and Firefox. His public disclosure of those flaws went a long way toward hardening the browsers.

52. David Barnes
CIO, United Parcel Service
Barnes is getting real efficient with the UPS fleet.

53. John Pescatore
Vice president and research fellow, Gartner
In many ways, Pescatore’s work determines enterprise spending at a very high level, influencing the delivery of Internet-facing products.

54. Robert Samson
Vice president, Worldwide Systems Sales, Systems and Technology Group, IBM
Samson is responsible for worldwide sales of IBM’s servers and storage products, as well as retail store solutions.

55. Faisal Hoque
Founder, Business Technology Management Institute
Hoque champions a form of management science called Business Technology Management, which aims to ensure that sustainable business value can be delivered through technology.

56. Bob Willett
CIO and CEO, Best Buy and Best Buy International
Willett is a forerunner of what we call “the hollowing of big IT”—where IT organizations of the future will be composed of managers and analysts with most specialty work outsourced.

57. Jimmy Wales
Founder, Wikia
Co-founder of that fount of shared knowledge, Wikipedia, Wales is now looking to apply the wiki model to search with Wikia Search.

58. Bruce Schneier
CTO, BT Counterpane

Schneier is a leading cryptology expert and a voice for common sense in security policy.

59. Charles Phillips
President, Oracle
Larry Ellison makes the plans, and Phillips has to fuse his boss’ big thoughts with reality.

60. Stefan Esser
Security researcher
Esser’s “Month of PHP Bugs” project thoroughly exposed the insecure nature of the widely deployed PHP language and forced a rethink of security in the open-source world.

61. Martin Roesch
CTO, Sourcefire
The inventor of the open-source Snort, Roesch is a noted expert in the area of intrusion prevention technology.

62. Ann Livermore
Executive vice president, Technology Solutions Group, Hewlett-Packard
Livermore has tremendous influence over the types of products HP offers its enterprise customers, as well as the small and midsize companies HP has begun to pursue.

63. John Doerr
Venture capitalist, Kleiner Perkins Caufield & Byers
In tech, it’s all about making the right venture capital bets.

64. Angela Merkel
Chancellor, Germany

The first female chancellor of Germany, Merkel is a physicist by training and has the strongest understanding of technology of any world leader.

65. Ravi Marwaha
General manager, IBM Global Business Partners
The partner program Marwaha oversees actively networks with solution providers from different disciplines to develop innovative solutions that solve real-world customer problems.

66. John Glaser
CIO, Partners HealthCare
Leader in the strategic application of IT in the health care industry.

67. Bill Hilf
Director of platform strategy, Microsoft
Hilf is a key player in Microsoft’s evolving strategy to reach out to the open-source community.

68. Mark Shuttleworth
CEO, Canonical
The leader of the Ubuntu distribution is mainstreaming Linux on the desktop.

69. Randy Mott
CIO, Hewlett-Packard

Formerly CIO at Wal-Mart and Dell, Mott is responsible for HP’s IT strategy and assets.

70. Thomas Davenport
Author
“Competing on Analytics” is an important book at a time when business intelligence is in its ascendancy.

71. Gary Hamel
Author
His ideas in “The Future of Management” validate and expound new ways of working and using IT.

72. Simon Crosby
CTO, XenSource
Crosby is a leading proponent of open-source virtualization with the Xen hypervisor. (XenSource was acquired by Citrix in 2007.)

73. Edward Markey
U.S. Representative, D-Mass.
Markey serves as the chairman of the House Subcommittee on Telecommunication and the Internet, and is a major advocate for net neutrality.

74. Ross Mayfield
Co-founder, SocialText

As SocialText’s chairman and president, and former CEO, Mayfield is a thought leader in the burgeoning Web 2.0 collaboration software market.

75. Stan Shih
Chairman, Acer
Shih started Acer—which snapped up Gateway in 2007—and is still the company’s top tech visionary.


76. Desh Deshpande
Founder, Deshpande Center, MIT School of Engineering
From financial flop to billionaire to a new way of developing tech startups.

77. Edward Amoroso
CISO, AT&T
The chief information security officer at AT&T, Amoroso is a pioneer of security in the cloud.

78. Padmasree Warrior
CTO, Cisco
Formerly of Motorola, Warrior plays a key role in the development of Cisco technology.

79. Mark Olsen
Chairman, Public Company Accounting Oversight Board
Olsen and the PCAOB are charged by the Securities and Exchange Commission with setting the standards for and enforcement of the Sarbanes-Oxley Act.

80. Mary Lou Jepsen
Founder, Pixel Qi
As CTO of the OLPC, Jepsen introduced innovative display technologies. Now she’s applying that experience at her Pixel Qi startup, which will build components for low-cost information devices.

81. Adeo Ressi
Founder, Thefunded.com
Ressi has built a huge following for his ratings of venture capitalists and his recounting of how they treat would-be entrepreneurs.

82. Bronwen Matthews
Security program manager, Microsoft
Matthews controls the budget for outside hacking teams hired to break Microsoft’s products.

83. Akash Saraf
CEO, Zenith InfoTech

Rather than setting up yet another boutique managed services offering, Saraf built a massive hosting infrastructure in India to deliver affordable managed services that resellers in the United States could brand as their own.

84. Chris Wysopal CTO, Veracode
Wysopal is a poster boy for hackers made good.

85. Lawrence Lessig
Founder, Center for Internet and Society
With his Change Congress Web site, Lessig’s goal is to reduce corruption and the influence of money in politics. Lessig is also an advocate for reduced legal restrictions on the radio spectrum and the creator of Creative Commons license.

86. Patricia Curley
CIO, The Kraft Group

Tasked with managing the technology that keeps the New England Patriots humming, Curley also oversees IT for the New England Revolution soccer team and Gillette Stadium.

87. Jim Collins
Author
“Good to Great” is the most popular and influential book among CIOs.

88. Edward Felten
Computer security and privacy and technology policy researcher, Princeton University

Felten is shining a spotlight on the intersection of public policy and privacy.

89. Evan Williams
Founder, Twitter
Williams asked the question, “What are you doing right now?” and changed the way we communicate in the process.

90. Matt Mullenweg
Co-founder, WordPress

The 24-year-old Mullenweg is a pioneer of the open-source blog.

91. Alan Kay
A computer science legend, Kay’s most recent work has been with the OLPC, whose XO laptop is based in part on his innovations.

92. Ivan Krstic
Former director of security, OLPC
Krstic, who left the OLPC in March, created the innovative Bitfrost security architecture for the XO. If Bitfrost proves itself on the XO, it will influence anti-malware security on mainstream operating systems.

93. Nicholas Carr
Author
Carr shook up the industry by saying that IT doesn’t matter. Agree or not, his ideas continue to shape the way that organizations look at the IT department.

94. Tavis Ormandy
Information security engineer, Google
Ormandy, one of the most visible hackers/researchers on the Google Security Team, faces the unenviable responsibility of making sure all of Google’s products pass the security smell test.

95. Mark Spencer
Chairman and CTO, Digium
Spencer founded Asterisk and the open-source telephony movement.

96. Dave Winer
Software developer and entrepreneur

Winer is the developer of RSS.

97. Thornton May
Florida Community College, IT Leadership Academy
May is a noted technology futurist.

98. William
Cheswick
Lead member of technical staff, AT&T Labs

Cheswick continues to innovate in the area of communications research.

99. Chris Anderson
Author
Anderson, editor in chief of Wired, proffered the notion of the niche in his book, “The Long Tail: Why the Future of Business Is Selling Less of More.”

100. Ben Bernanke
Chairman, Federal Reserve Board
No one will have a bigger impact on the fate of the nation’s banks and financial services companies, interest rates, or access to credit.

 

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A Ranking of the Most Influential People in the War between the States

The Civil War 100:
A Ranking of the Most Influential People in the War between the States


The list below is from the book The Civil War 100: A Ranking of the Most Influential People in the War between the States, Citdael Press (1998), written by Robert Wooster.

This book provides brief profiles of the one hundred most significant persons of the American Civil War, ranked in order of importance.



1 Abraham Lincoln raised Baptist; later no specific denomination
2 Ulysses S. Grant Presbyterian (nominal)
3 William T. Sherman
4 Robert E. Lee Episcopalian
5 Jefferson Davis Episcopalian
6 Andrew Johnson Baptist (nominal)
7 George McClellan
8 William Seward
9 Edwin Stanton Quaker
10 Frederick Douglass
11 Stephen A. Douglas
12 Joseph E. Johnston
13 David Farragut
14 John Brown Congregationalist
15 Harriet Beecher Stowe
16 (tie) Robert Barnwell Rhett
16 (tie) William Yancey
18 Philip Sheridan
19 James Longstreet
20 Thomas J. "Stonewall" Jackson Christianity
21 Salmon P. Chase Episcopalian
22 George Meade
23 Gideon Welles
24 William Lloyd Garrison
25 John Wilkes Booth Episcopalian
26 James Buchanan Presbyterian
27 Henry Halleck
28 Josiah Gorgas
29 George Thomas Methodist
30 Braxton Bragg
31 Horace Greeley Universalist
32 Roger B. Taney Catholic
33 "J. E. B." Stuart
34 Mathew Brady
35 P. G. T. Beauregard
36 Joseph Hooker
37 Winfield Scott
38 John Bell Hood Episcopalian
39 Viscount Palmerston
40 (tie) Elizabeth Cady Stanton
41 (tie) Susan B. Anthony Quaker; Unitarian
42 David Dixon Porter
43 Charles Sumner
44 Nathan Bedford Forrest
45 Montgomery Meigs
46 John C. Fremont
47 Dred Scott Catholic
48 Jay Cooke
49 Benjamin Wade
50 Lyman Trumbull
51 Sojourner Truth Methodist; Seventh-day Adventist
52 Ambrose Burnside
53 Mary Todd Lincoln
54 Franklin Pierce Episcopalian
55 Mary Chesnut
56 Edmund Kirby Smith
57 Irvin McDowell
58 Benjamin Butler
59 Nathaniel P. Banks
60 John C. Breckinridge Presbyterian
61 Thaddeus Stevens
62 John Pope
63 Oliver O. Howard
64 Stephen Mallory
65 John C. Pemberton
66 Herman Haupt
67 Charles Francis Adams Unitarian
68 Wade Hampton
69 Walt Whitman Quaker; Humanist; Transcendentalist
70 Napoleon III
71 Alexander Hamilton Stephens
72 Edmund Ruffin
73 Clement Vallandigham
74 Harriet Tubman Methodist
75 John Schofield
76 William S. Rosecrans
77 James Henry Carleton
78 Richard Taylor
79 Albert Sidney Johnston
80 Henry Bellows
81 Jubal Early
82 William Gilmore Simms
83 Justin Smith Morrill
84 Sterling Price
85 Frank Leslie
86 Little Crow
87 Dorothea Dix Unitarian
88 John Crittenden
89 Clara Barton Universalist
90 Mary Bickerdyke
91 Herman Melville Transcendentalist
92 Earl Van Dorn
93 Raphael Semmes
94 Hannibal Hamlin
95 Don Carlos Buell
96 Gail Borden
97 Philip Armour
98 Nelson A. Miles
99 Henry Wirz
100 John Chivington Methodist

 

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A Ranking of the Most Influential Military Leaders of All Time

The Military 100:
A Ranking of the Most Influential Military Leaders of All Time



The list below is from the book The Military 100: A Ranking of the Most Influential Military Leaders of All Time (Carol Publishing Group/Citadel Press: Secaucus, New Jersey, 1996), written by Michael Lee Lanning. Lanning served as public affairs officer for Gen. H. Norman Schwarzkopf. He spent more than twenty years on active duty in the U.S. Army.

1 George Washington 1732-1799 American general Episcopalian
2 Napoleon I 1769-1821 French emperor Catholic (nominal)
3 Alexander the Great 356-323 B.C. Macedonian conqueror Greek state paganism
4 Genghis Khan ca. 1167-1227 Mongol conqueror Mongolian shamanism
5 Julius Caesar ca. 100-44 B.C. Roman emperor Roman state paganism
6 Gustavus Adolphus 1594-1632 Swedish king Lutheran
7 Francisco Pizarro ca. 1475-1541 Spanish conqueror Catholic
8 Charlemagne (Charles the Great) 742-814 Frankish king Catholic
9 Hernando Cortes 1485-1547 Spanish conqueror Catholic
10 Cyrus the Great ca. 590-ca. 529 B.C. Persian king Zoroastrian
11 Frederick the Great (Frederick II) 1712-1786 Prussian general
12 Simon Bolivar 1785-1830 South American liberator Catholic (nominal); Atheist
13 William the Conqueror ca. 1027-1087 English king Catholic
14 Adolf Hitler 1889-1945 German dictator Nazism; born/raised in, but rejected Catholicism
15 Attila the Hun ca. 406-453 Hun conqueror Hun
16 George Catlett Marshall 1880-1959 American general
17 Peter the Great 1672-1725 Russian czar Russian Orthodox
18 Dwight David Eisenhower 1890-1969 American general Jehovah's Witness; Presbyterian
19 Oliver Cromwell 1599-1658 English general Puritan (Protestant)
20 Douglas MacArthur 1880-1964 American general
21 Karl von Clausewitz 1780-1831 Prussian general
22 Arthur Wellesley (First Duke of Wellington) 1769-1852 British general
23 Sun Tzu ca. 400-330 B.C. Chinese writer
24 Hermann-Maurice Comte de Saxe 1696-1750 French marshal
25 Tamerlane 1336-1405 Tartar conqueror Islam
26 Antoine Henri Jomini 1779-1869 French general
27 Eugene of Savoy 1663-1736 Austrian marshal
28 Fernandez Gonzalo de Cordoba 1453-1515 Spanish general
29 Sebastien Le Prestre de Vauban 1633-1707 French marshal
30 Hannibal ca. 241-ca. 183 B.C. Carthaginian general
31 John Churchill (Duke of Marlborough) 1650-1722 English general
32 Winfield Scott 1786-1866 American general
33 Ulysses Simpson Grant [Ulysses S. Grant] 1822-1885 American general Presbyterian; Methodist
34 Scipio Africanus ca. 237-ca. 183 B.C. Roman general
35 Horatio Nelson 1758-1805 British admiral
36 John Frederick Charles Fuller 1878-1966 British general
37 Henri de La Tour d'Auvergne de Turenne 1611-1675 French marshal
38 Alfred Thayer Mahan 1840-1914 American admiral
39 Helmuth Karl Bernhard von Moltke 1800-1891 Prussian marshal
40 Vo Nguyen Giap ca. 1912- Vietnamese general
41 John Joseph Pershing 1860-1948 American general
42 Maurice of Nassau 1567-1625 Dutch general
43 Joan of Arc 1412-1431 French Heroine Catholic
44 Alan Francis Brooke (Alanbrooke) 1883-1963 British marshal
45 Jean Baptiste Vaquette de Gribeauval 1715-1789 French general
46 Omar Nelson Bradley 1893-1981 American general
47 Ralph Abercromby 1734-1801 British general
48 Mao Zedong 1893-1976 Chinese revolutionary Communist; Maoist; atheist
49 H. Norman Schwarzkopf 1934- American general Lutheran
50 Alexander Vasilevich Suvorov ca. 1729-1800 Russian marshal
51 Louis Alexandre Berthier 1753-1815 French marshal
52 Jose de San Martin 1778-1850 South American revolutionary
53 Giuseppe Garibaldi 1807-1882 Italian general Catholic
54 Ivan Stepanovich Konev 1897-1973 Soviet marshal
55 Suleiman I 1494-1566 Turkish sultan
56 Colin Campbell 1792-1863 British marshal
57 Samuel (Sam) Houston 1793-1863 Texan general
58 Richard I (the Lion-Hearted) 1157-1199 English king
59 Shaka ca. 1787-1828 Zulu king Zulu
60 Robert Edward Lee 1807-1870 Confederate general Episcopalian
61 Chester William Nimitz 1885-1966 American admiral
62 Gebhard Leberecht von Blucher 1742-1819 Prussian marshal
63 Bernard Law Montgomery 1887-1976 British marshal
64 Carl Gustav Emil von Mannerheim 1867-1951 Finnish marshal
65 H. H. Arnold 1886-1950 American general
66 Mustafa Kemal (Ataturk) 1881-1938 Turkish general
67 John Arbuthnot Fisher 1841-1920 British admiral
68 Heihachiro Togo 1848-1934 Japanese admiral
69 Moshe Dayan 1915-1981 Isaeli general Jewish
70 George Konstantinovich Zhukov 1896-1974 Soviet marshal
71 Ferdinand Foch 1851-1929 French marshal Catholic
72 Edward I 1239-1307 English king
73 Selim I ca. 1470-1520 Turkish sultan
74 Giulio Douhet 1869-1930 Italian general
75 Heinz Guderian 1888-1954 German general
76 Lin Piao 1907-1971 Chinese marshal
77 Isoroku Yamamoto 1884-1943 Japanese admiral
78 Harold Rupert Alexander 1891-1969 British marshal
79 Erwin Rommel 1891-1944 German marshal
80 Lennart Torstensson 1603-1651 Swedish marshal
81 Saddam Hussein 1937- Iraqi marshal Islam
82 Fidel Castro 1927- Cuban revolutionary Catholic; Orisha
83 Horatio Herbert Kitchener 1850-1916 British marshal
84 Tito 1892-1980 Yugoslav marshal Catholic
85 Karl Doenitz 1891-1980 German admiral
86 Kim Il Sung 1912-1994 Korean dictator Communist; Juche
87 David Glasgow Farragut 1801-1870 American admiral
88 Garnet Joseph Wolseley 1833-1913 British marshal
89 Chiang Kai-shek 1878-1975 Chinese nationalist Methodist
90 Frederick Sleigh Roberts 1832-1914 British marshal
91 Saladin 1138-1193 Muslim sultan Islam
92 George Dewey 1837-1917 American admiral
93 Louis II de Bourbon, Prince de Conde 1621-1686 French general
94 Kurt Student 1890-1978 German general
95 George S. Patton 1885-1945 American general
96 Michel Ney 1769-1815 French marshal
97 Charles XII 1682-1718 Swedish king
98 Thomas Cochrane 1775-1860 British admiral
99 Johann Tserclaes von Tilly 1559-1632 Flemish mercenary
100 Edmund Henry H. Allenby 1861-1936 British marshal

 

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Inspiring Profiles of One Hundred Men and Women Who Changed the World

The 100 Greatest Heroes:
Inspiring Profiles of One Hundred Men and Women Who Changed the World


The list below is from the book The 100 Greatest Heroes: Inspiring Profiles of One Hundred Men and Women Who Changed the World (Kensington Publishing Corp./Citadel Press: New York City, 2003), written by H. Paul Jeffers.

Text from inside book jacket:

In Greek and Roman mythology, the world hero was used to describe men whose courageous actions brought favor from the gods. Today, a hero can be just about anyone--from a steadfast politician working to secure world peace to an average man or woman who demonstrates remarkable bravery. H. Paul Jeffers has searched the annals of world history to identify the most influential heroes of all time--chronicling one hundred intriguing real-life tales that are sure to fascinate and inspire.
The 100 Greatest Heroes includes profiles--ranked in order of significance--of the world's most spirited warriors and explorers, politicians and entertainers, innovators and peacekeepers, police officers, doctors, and nurses. It brings to life exciting figures from history, including the father of our country, George Washington; Mahatma Gandhi, who promoted the use of nonviolent tactics to bring about peace; baseball player Bab Ruth; and British Prime Minister Winston Churchill.

Included among the list are many of the extraordinary women who distinguished themselves through their astonishing achievements and bravery. Among them are suffragette Susan B. Anthony; the fearless warrior Joan of Arc; the first woman doctor, Elizabeth Blackwell; pioneering social worker, activist, and reformer Jane Addams; and aviator Amelia Earhart, whose daring exploits captured the world's attention before costing her her life.

But not all of the heroes profiles are those whose lives played out on the world stage. Some are everyday people who found their own way to make a difference, such as Harriet Tubman, a runaway slave who overcame enormous odds... Other exceptional people who made the list include Lech Walesa, an ordinary shipyard worker whose Solidarity Movement helped bring down the Iron Curtain; New York Mayor Rudy Giuliani, whose leadership during the tragedy of September 11, 2001, brought him worldwide acclaim and admiration; and Raoul Wallenberg, whose heroics helped rescue Jews from the Holocaust.

Spanning from biblical to modern times, The 100 Greatest Heroes pays homage to the men and women whose life stories serve as an inspiration to the world.



1 George Washington 1732-1799 Episcopalian
2 Abraham Lincoln 1809-1865 Regular Baptist (childhood);
later ambiguous -
Deist, general theist or
a very personalized Christianity
3 Franklin Delano Roosevelt 1882-1945 Episcopalian
4 Winston Churchill 1874-1965 Anglican
5 Ronald Reagan 1911- Presbyterian
6 Alexander the Great 356-323 B.C. Greek state paganism
7 Christopher Columbus 1451-1506 Catholic
8 Martin Luther 1438-1546 Catholic; Lutheran
9 Samuel Adams 1722-1803
10 Napoleon Bonaparte 1769-1821 Catholic (nominal)
11 Dwight D. Eisenhower 1890-1969 Jehovah's Witness; Presbyterian
12 Theodore Roosevelt 1858-1920 Dutch Reformed; Episcopalian
13 Ulysses S. Grant 1822-1885 Presbyterian; Methodist
14 Pope John Paul II 1920- Catholic
15 George W. Bush 1946- Methodist (former Episcopalian)
16 Harry S. Truman 1884-1972 Baptist
17 George C. Marshall 1880-1959 Episcopalian
18 Mikhail Gorbachev 1931- Russian Orthodox
19 Lech Walesa 1943- Catholic
20 Boris Yeltsin 1931-
21 John F. Kennedy 1917-1963 Catholic
22 John Glenn 1921- Presbyterian
23 Neil Armstrong 1930-
24 Susan B. Anthony 1820-1906 Quaker; Unitarian
25 Senator Margaret Chase Smith 1897-1995 Methodist
26 Whitaker Chambers 1901-1961
27 Simon Bolivar 1783-1830 Catholic (nominal); Atheist
28 David Ben-Gurion 1886-1973 Judaism
29 Charles A. Lindbergh 1902-1974
30 John Paul Jones 1747-1792
31 Sergeant Alvin York 1887-1964
32 Sergeant Audie Murphy 1924-1971
33 General Douglas MacArthur 1880-1964
34 Davy Crockett 1786-1836
35 King George VI 1895-1952 Anglican
36 Charles de Gaulle 1890-1970
37 Joan of Arc 1412-1431 Catholic
38 Clara Barton 1821-1912 Universalist
39 Elzabeth Blackwell 1821-1910
40 Anne Hutchinson 1591-1643 Unitarian
41 William Bradford 1590-1657
42 Fiorella La Guardia 1882-1947
43 Raoul Wallenberg 1912-?
44 Ira Hayes 1923-1955
45 Harriet Tubman 1820(?)-1913 Methodist
46 Galileo Galilei 1564-1642 Catholic
47 Martin Luther King, Jr. 1929-1968 Baptist
48 Sir Thomas More 1478-1535 Catholic
49 Andrew Jackson 1767-1845 Presbyterian
50 Thomas Jefferson 1743-1826 raised Episcopalian; later no specific denomination
held Christian, Deist, Unitarian beliefs
51 Meriwether Lewis 1774-1809
52 John Quincy Adams 1767-1848 Unitarian
53 Amelia Earhart 1897-1937
54 General James H. "Jimmy" Doolittle 1896-1993
55 Admiral Chester W. Nimitz 1885-1966
56 Admiral David Glasgow Farragut 1801-1870
57 Colin Powell 1937- Episcopalian
58 Nathan Hale 1755-1776
59 Alexander Hamilton 1757-1804 Episcopalian
60 Giuseppi Garibaldi 1807-1882 Catholic
61 Admiral Horatio Nelson 1758-1805
62 Admiral George Dewey 1837-1917
63 Moshe Dayan 1915-1981 Jewish
64 Golda Meir 1898-1978 Judaism
65 William "Wild Bill" Donovan 1883-1959
66 Lord Louis Mountbatten 1900-1976 Episcopalian
67 Mohandas "Mahatma" Gandhi 1969-1948 Hindu (mother was a Jain)
68 Ralph Bunche 1904-1971
69 Theodore Roosevelt, Jr. 1887-1944
70 Captain Edward "Eddie" Rickenbacker 1890-1973
71 Lieutenant Giuseppe Petrosino, NYPD 1860-1909
72 Melvin Purvis 1903-1960
73 Lou Gehrig 1903-1941 Lutheran
74 George Herman "Babe" Ruth 1895-1948 Catholic
75 Joe Louis 1914-1981
76 Branch Rickey 1881-1965 Methodist
77 Jackie Robinson 1919-1972 Methodist
78 Admiral Richard E. Byrd 1888-1957
79 Eleanor Roosevelt 1884-1962 Episcopalian
80 Margaret Thatcher 1925-
81 Anwar el-Sadat 1918-1981 Islam
82 Edward R. Murrow 1908-1965
83 General George S. Patton 1885-1945
84 General Omar N. Bradley 1893-1981
85 General Jonathan Wainwright 1883-1953
86 Rudolph "Rudy" Giuliani 1944- Catholic
87 Chief Sitting Bull 1831-1890
88 Eugene V. Debs 1855-1926
89 Jane Addams 1860-1935
90 Willy Brandt 1913-1992
91 Haile Selassie 1891-1975
92 General Gouverneur Kemble Warren 1830-1882
93 John McCain III 1936- Episcopalian
94 Lieutenant Colonel Oliver North 1943-
95 Howard Hughes 1905-1976
96 Vaclav Havel 1936- Catholic
97 Todd Beamer 1969-2001
98 Sergeant Nathan Ross Chapman 1971-2002
99 Sir William Stephenson 1896-1989
100 Bob Hope 1903- Catholic

 

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امثال و حکم ; ۳:٠٠ ‎ب.ظ ; دوشنبه ٤ آذر ۱۳۸٧

History’s 100 Most Influential People: Hero Edition

History’s 100 Most Influential People: Hero Edition

April 1st, 2007 by James
Attention visitors: In addition to this post, you may want to check out two similar posts from 2006:
Japanese rank their favorite 100 historical figures (a more general non-hero list)
The Japanese people rank their favorite 100 female historical figures (ladies only)

Last night a new Top 100 historical figure list show, “Histories 100 Most Influential people: Hero Edition,” aired on NTV. Here is the full list of results, as selected by a national survey.
Sakamoto Ryoma
Napoleon I
Oda Nobunaga
Saigo Takamori
Miyamoto no Yoshitsune
Jean of Arc
Hideyoshi Toyotomi
Albert Einstein
Yutaka Ozaki
Akechi Mitsuhide
Genghis Khan
Tokugaya Ieyasu
Thomas Edison
Florence Nightengale
Chiune Sugihara
Kyu Sakamoto
Hijikata Toshizo
Rikidozan
Yoshida Shoin
Mahatma Gandhi
Prince Shotoku
George Washington
Sanada Yukimura
Mother Teresa
Yujiro Ishihara
Kakuei Tanaka
Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart
Abraham Lincoln
Oishi Yoshio
Okita Soji
Christopher Columbus
Admiral Togo Heihachiro
Martin Luther King Jr.
Andy Hug
Amakusa Shiro
Hideyo Noguchi
Bruce Lee
Leonardo da Vinci
Abe no Seimei
Walt Disney
Kondo Isami
Date Masamune
Akira Kurosawa
Julius Caesar
Chosuke Ikariya
Audrey Hepburn
Liu Bei
Ryunosuke Akutagawa
John Lennon
Takasugi Shinsaku
Naomi Uemura
Freddy Mercury
Isoroku Yamamoto
Osamu Tezuka
Ninomiya Sontoku
Charlie Chaplin
Diana, Princess of Wales
Ludwig van Beethoven
Ryotaro Shiba
Pablo Picasso
John F Kennedy
Yuri Gagarin
“Giant” Baba
Kong Ming
Anne Frank
Daijiro Kato
Cao Cao
Tokugawa Yoshimune
Arthur Conan Doyle
Elvis Presley
Galileo Galilei
Queen Himiko
Yusaku Matsuda
Pierre and Marie Curie
Ferdinand Magellan
James Dean
Yukio Mishima
Taira no Masakado
Hokusai
Sen no Rikyu
Kiyoshi Atsumi
Federic Chopin
Babe Ruth
Sun Yat-sen
Ayrton Senna
Takanohana Koji
William Shakespeare
Shirasu Jiro
Taira no Kiyomori
Eisaku Sato
The Wright Brothers
Stanely Kubrick
Theodore Roosevelt
Hiraga Gennai
Miyamoto Musashi
Eiji Tsuburaya
Abebe Bikila
Eiji Sawamura
Isaac Newton
Matthew Calbraith Perry
As in their previous historical figure listing shows, NTV had popular celebrities play the role of their favorite historical people who made the list. Here’s foreign “talento” Thane Camus playing Columbus (ranked 31):

 

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امثال و حکم ; ٢:٥٩ ‎ب.ظ ; دوشنبه ٤ آذر ۱۳۸٧

The most influential people in sports, from golf to skateboarding to...

The Power 100
The most influential people in sports, from golf to skateboarding to...

by Brian Burnsed, Geoff Gloeckler, Ronald Grover, Matthew Lawyue, Tom Lowry and David Polek

THIS ISSUE


October 13, 2008
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01 TIGER WOODS Golfer
His absence from the PGA Tour this year has opened the world's eyes to how powerful he really is.

02 ROGER GOODELL Commissioner, NFL
Under his reign, pro football rumbles on as America's most popular, and profitable, sports league.

03 DAVID STERN Commissioner, NBA
In charge 24 years, Stern has expanded the league's reach to Europe and China, but a scandal over referee gambling required some cleanup.

04 GEORGE BODENHEIMER President, ESPN
Looking to strengthen an already mighty brand, Bodenheimer aims to win the rights to the 2014 and 2016 Olympics.

05 DICK EBERSOL Chairman, NBC Sports
Prime-time ratings for the Beijing Olympics trumped those from Athens four years earlier, and fans flocked to NBC's Web site for streaming video.

06 PHIL KNIGHT Chairman, Nike
Co-founder Knight oversees the top athletic shoe and apparel outfit on the planet. Enough said.

07 ALLAN "BUD" SELIG Commissioner, MLB
With baseball finally free of its steroid scandal, Selig's next challenge is testing instant replays on home runs.

08 BRIAN FRANCE Chairman and CEO, Nascar
Even with hiccups over faulty tires and failed inspections, Nascar still boasts the most brand-loyal fans in sports.

09 MICHAEL JORDAN NBA great; minority owner, Charlotte Bobcats
Five years after retiring, MJ retains a star power that extends far beyond hoops.

10 SEAN MCMANUS President, CBS News and Sports
McManus manages a juggernaut of NCAA March Madness, the NFL, the U.S. Open, and lots of golf--while also keeping an eye on CBS News.

11 DAVID HILL Chairman and CEO, Fox Sports
The Godfather of Fox Sports returned full-time last year after juicing up DirecTV's programming.

12 RUPERT MURDOCH Chairman and CEO, News Corp.
He may not understand football, but the media mogul knows that sports sells--whether it's NFL on Fox or cricket in India via his ESPN Star joint venture.

13 MYLES BRAND President, NCAA
Brand has implemented stiff penalties for athletes who don't meet academic standards.

14 TONY PONTURO Vice-President, global media and sports marketing, Anheuser-Busch
All eyes will be on the man who controls the biggest ad budget in sports--to see what the brewer's new owners will spend.

15 LANCE ARMSTRONG Tour de France cyclist
Continuing his anticancer crusade, Armstrong is back on the bike, aiming for his eighth yellow jersey in 2009.

16 THEODORE FORSTMANN Chairman and CEO, IMG
He created a hot, new cricket league in India and signed a 20-year venture with CCTV to develop sports in China.

17 LEBRON JAMES Forward, Cleveland Cavaliers
A big year for King James: the cover of Vogue and an Olympic gold medal. He's still lacks an NBA title, however.

18 DONALD FEHR Executive Director, Major League Baseball Players Assn.
The de facto union boss had a lot on his plate in the past year, including the Mitchell Report on steroid abuse.

19 STEINBRENNER FAMILY Principal owner, New York Yankees
With patriarch George out of the public eye, sons Hank and Hal will usher the Bronx Bombers into the new Yankee Stadium in 2009.

20 JOHN HENRY Owner, Boston Red Sox; co-owner, Roush Fenway Racing
A big part of Boston's sports renaissance, the Red Sox are shooting for their third World Series trophy under Henry's ownership.

21 GARY BETTMAN Commissioner, NHL
With a crop of marketable young players, Bettman has a chance to bring hockey back from the blahs.

22 PHILIP ANSCHUTZ Founder, Anschutz Entertainment Group; Co-owner, Los Angeles Kings;
The Denver billionaire owns five soccer teams and six hockey clubs to help fill the 30 arenas AEG owns or manages.

23 TIM LEIWEKE CEO, Anschutz Entertainment Group
After bringing David Beckham to the Los Angeles Galaxy, Anschutz's field general is reshaping L.A. with a $2.5 billion entertainment and sports complex.

24 ROBERT KRAFT Owner, New England Patriots
What's more heartbreaking than losing the Super Bowl after a perfect season? Maybe losing quarterback Tom Brady this year.

25 BRIAN ROBERTS Chairman and CEO, Comcast
The super-competitive squash player recently won battles with the NFL and Big Ten over sportscasts on his cable systems.

26 JERRY JONES Owner and General Manager, Dallas Cowboys
His new $1 billion stadium will be ready in 2009 and will host Super Bowl XLV in 2011.

27 TIM FINCHEM Commissioner, PGA Tour
The Tour's playoff structure seems to be a winner, but Finchem no doubt longs to have Tiger back.

28 KOBE BRYANT Guard, Los Angeles Lakers
His gold-medal trip to Beijing for the Olympics solidified his MVP status as an international icon.

29 PEYTON MANNING Quarterback, Indianapolis Colts
Younger brother Eli may have stolen the limelight with last season's Super Bowl win, but Peyton is ahead in marketability, pitching Sprint, MasterCard, and Gatorade.

30 JOHN SKIPPER EVP, content, ESPN
His string of deals over the past year include rights to stream MLB games, broadcast Southeast Conference college games, U.S. Open tennis, and Masters golf.

31 MARK PARKER President and CEO, Nike
The Olympics were a boon for Parker, with 22 of the 28 Chinese sports federations and most of the U.S. men's basketball team wearing the iconic swoosh.

32 ED GOREN President, Fox Sports
The 37-time Emmy winner is taking Fox further into the digital age by offering all MLB games in HD.

33 MALCOLM GLAZER Owner, Manchester United, Tampa Bay Buccaneers
ManU won the Premier and Champions League titles this past season, but his biggest coup could be holding on to superstar Cristiano Ronaldo.

34 TOM BRADY Quarterback, New England Patriots
Sidelined by injury this year, he had been challenging Peyton Manning's title as king of endorsements in the NFL.

35 JEFF URBAN Senior Vice-President, sports marketing, Gatorade
His product is the official sports drink of all four major sports in America, as well as soccer in Europe and the U.S.

36 PAUL ALLEN Owner, Seattle Seahawks, Portland Trail Blazers
The billionaire Microsoft co-founder hasn't scored as well in sports despite throwing buckets of money at players.

37 SCOTT BORAS President, Scott Boras Corp.
Baseball's überagent will be peddling sluggers Mark Teixeira and Manny Ramirez this off-season.

38 DALE EARNHARDT JR. Nascar driver
His move to Hendrick Motorsports seems to be what he needed, as Little E returned to the winner's circle in 2008.

39 PETER UEBERROTH Chairman, U.S. Olympic Committee
The one-time water polo player never made it to the Olympics as an athlete, but he's been bringing back Olympic gold.

40 CHASE CAREY CEO and President, DirecTV
The one-time rugby player's satellite-TV company keeps adding eyeballs by offering exclusive sports channels.

41 RICK DUDLEY President and CEO, Octagon
His agency's roster of clients keeps growing, boasting the likes of John Elway, Chris Paul, and some swimmer named Phelps.

42 MICHAEL PHELPS Swimmer
His eight gold medals in the Beijing Olympics and 14 overall are guaranteed to make him this season's most sought-after sports celeb by advertisers.

43 GEORGE PYNE President, IMG Sports & Entertainment
The key deputy to IMG's Forstmann circles the globe to sign more athletes as well as sponsorship and licensing deals.

44 MARK CUBAN Owner, Dallas Mavericks, HDNet
Endorsements from David Stern and John Henry will no doubt help the tech billionaire's chances of adding the Chicago Cubs to his holdings.

45 ALEX RODRIGUEZ Third baseman, New York Yankees
The reigning American League MVP has been in the news a lot lately, but not necessarily for his on-field performance.

46 CASEY WASSERMAN CEO, Wasserman Media Group; Owner and CEO, Los Angeles Avengers
The Hollywood scion's agency represents a Dream Team, including soccer's Mia Hamm, 20 Beijing Olympic athletes, and seven of the top 15 NBA picks.

47 JACK NICKLAUS PGA great; partner, Nicklaus Design; owner, Nicklaus Golf Equipment
Golf's Golden Bear has designed more than 200 golf courses, plus he's an author, with two books in 2007.

48 MARK FORD President, Sports Illustrated Group
He's testing fresh waters for the largest sports weekly, auctioning ad space online in the hopes of reaching new, global advertisers.

49 BOB DUPUY President and Chief Operating Officer, Major League Baseball
He's currently working on a plan to end local blackout restrictions on televising baseball games.

50 DANICA PATRICK Indy Racing League Driver
The first woman to win an IndyCar race, generating some much-needed buzz for that other racing league.

51 DEREK JETER Shortstop, New York Yankees
The team captain and ad pitchman is leading the American League club to its new $1.3 billion ballpark next year.

52 SIDNEY CROSBY Center and captain, Pittsburgh Penguins
At just 21 and with three years as a pro, Sid the Kid is hockey's top player and most marketable athlete.

53 ADAM SILVER Deputy Commissioner and COO, NBA
Considered a top candidate to succeed Stern someday, he continues to push the NBA into new media.

54 JOHN MADDEN NFL commentator; video game icon
This year marks his 30th in the broadcast booth and the 20th for his namesake video game.

55 DAVID LEVY President, Turner Broadcasting Sales and Turner Sports
Turner Sports is expanding rapidly, from NBA coverage on TNT and MLB games on TBS to pro sports Web sites.

56 ANDRE AGASSI Tennis great
One of the most marketable tennis players of all time, Agassi now uses his fame and wealth largely for philanthropy.

57 TONY HAWK Skateboarder; video game icon
After ushering extreme sports into the mainstream, Hawk is huge among gamers.

58 EARVIN "MAGIC" JOHNSON Nba Hall of Famer; Chairman and CEO, Magic Johnson Enterprises
Magic Johnson Enterprises owns movie theaters, fast-food outlets, and health clubs in inner-city neighborhoods.

59 JOHN RICCITIELLO CEO, Electronic Arts
The video game company is a champ in sports, thanks to such products as Madden NFL and NBA Live.

60 JERRY COLANGELO Chairman and CEO, Phoenix Suns; National Director, USA Basketball
The man responsible for assembling the "Redeem Team," which slam-dunked all challengers at the Beijing Games.

61 DANA WHITE President, Ultimate Fighting Championship
Led by UFC, mixed martial arts is shoving boxing aside as the biggest draw for fight fans.

62 GENE ORZA Chief Operating Officer, Major League Baseball Players Assn.
A significant player in baseball's collective bargaining negotiations over the past two decades.

63 DON GARBER Commissioner, MLS; CEO, Soccer United Marketing
The 14-club soccer league has plans to add four more teams by 2011.

64 JIM NASH Managing Director, Sports Advisory Practice, Bank of America
Has helped the big bank team up with the Big Four of U.S. sports: the NBA, NFL, NHL, and MLB.

65 WAYNE GRETZKY Hockey great; part-owner and head coach, Phoenix Coyotes
Former star of the Edmonton Oilers and Los Angeles Kings, Gretzky looms large from his years as The Great One.

66 ROSS GREENBERG President, HBO Sports
HBO is home to some of the most respected sports coverage anywhere with shows such as Costas Now and Real Sports with Bryant Gumbel.

67 MIKE ILITCH OWNER, DETROIT RED WINGS, DETROIT TIGERS
The Little Caesar's Pizza founder is still celebrating the Red Wings' first Stanley Cup since the 2001-02 season.

68 JACK ROUSH CEO and co-owner, Roush Fenway Racing
The success of his Nascar team this season is resting on the shoulders of driver Carl Edwards.

69 JEFF PASH Executive Vice-President and General Counsel, NFL
The lawyer is the No. 2 executive in the No. 1 sports league.

70 TOM CONDON NFL agent, CAA
Clients include superstars LaDanian Tomlinson and the Manning brothers, Eli and Peyton.

71 MIKE HELTON President, Nascar
As Nascar's liaison to drivers and team owners, the Virginia native is racing's troubleshooter.

72 JOHN WALSH Senior Vice-President and Executive Editor, ESPN
The adviser to ESPN's John Skipper has helped the cable network and its Web site dominate sports news.

73 DAVID BERSON Executive Vice-President, Program Planning and Development, ESPN
In charge of deciding what you'll see on "the worldwide leader in sports."

74 KATIE BAYNE Chief Marketing Officer, Coca-Cola North America
Coke furthered its global status by spending roughly $90 million at the Beijing Olympics.

75 LESA FRANCE Kennedy President, International Speedway
The highest-ranking woman inside stock-car racing has helped bring fans to the track.

76 ARLEN KANTARIAN CEO, United States Tennis Assn.
With Europeans dominating world tennis, the USTA has started an Elite Player Development program in hopes of creating an American star.

77 PAT BOWLEN Owner and CEO, Denver Broncos
His Broncos have appeared in five Super Bowls, and he has gotten the NFL big bucks from TV networks for airing rights.

78 CHRISTINE DRIESSEN CFO and Executive Vice-President, ESPN
Profit at the Disney subsidiary continues to grow under Driessen's watch.

79 TONY VINCIQUERRA Chairman and President, Fox Networks Group
Fox's cable guru mints money by overseeing Fox Sports Network and launching new niche channels.

80 RICHARD PETTY Nascar legend, team owner
Nascar's winningest racer influences the sport today as co-owner of the car driven by Bobby Labonte.

81 ROONEY FAMILY Owner, Pittsburgh Steelers
Their team may have won the 2006 Super Bowl, but family squabbles may lead to a sale.

82 TIM BROSNAN Executive Vice-President, business operations, MLB
He negotiated a hefty distribution deal that should give baseball's new cable channel, MLB Network, a big boost.

83 BOB BOWMAN CEO, MLB advanced media
MLB.com is gaining a significant partner in 2009 when MLB Network is launched, probably in time to cover spring training.

84 GREG CAREY AND JOE RAVITCH Managing Directors, Goldman Sachs
They helped finance construction of the palatial new $1.3 billion Yankee Stadium.

85 DAVE MORGAN Executive Editor, Yahoo! Sports
Yahoo! Sports is quickly becoming a top source for breaking news and playing fantasy sports.

86 JIM DELANY Commissioner, Big Ten
He lords over one of the most-watched college conferences.

87 RANDY FREER COO, Fox Sports Net
Signed on a dozen new teams this year, giving FSN TV rights for 48 of the nation's 84 major sports teams.

88 STEVE BORNSTEIN CEO, NFL Network; EVP of media, NFL
The former ABC and ESPN chief, who muscled the NFL's way into huge TV deals, may need ESPN's help to win with NFL Network.

89 WYCLIFFE GROUSBECK Owner and CEO, Boston Celtics
After years in the NBA's cellar, the Celtics beat the Los Angeles Lakers for the 2008 championship.

90 ROGER PENSKE Founder and Chairman, Penske Corp.
Owns teams in Nascar, the Indy Racing League, and the American Le Mans Series.

91 COLIN BADEN President, Oakley
The maker of sunglasses and outdoor apparel recently teamed with the Lance Armstrong Foundation to fight cancer.

92 ROBERT JOHNSON Majority owner, Charlotte Bobcats
The NBA's first team owner who is African American has brought Michael Jordan into the front office and hired the legendary Larry Brown to coach the 2008-09 season.

93 MIKE SLIVE Commissioner, Southeastern Conference
Conference powerhouses Florida and LSU have won the last two national championships.

94 STAN KROENKE Owner, Colorado Avalanche, Denver Nuggets; part-owner, St. Louis Rams
Three major U.S. teams aren't enough; Kroenke now is into British soccer with a stake in the club Arsenal.

95 KEVIN PLANK Founder and CEO, Under Armour
The firm has grown beyond its sweat-absorbing shirts and shorts to such sports gear as sunglasses and cleats.

96 RAY BEDNAR senior vice-president and Sports Sponsorship Executive, Bank of America
The official bank of MLB and the NFL is also a major sponsor of Nascar and the U.S. Olympic Team.

97 ERIC GRUBMAN Executive vice-president, finance and strategic transactions, NFL
The former Goldman Sachs M&A executive took his Wall Street savvy to the NFL in 2004.

98 ARN TELLEM President, WMG Management
When it comes to the NBA, Tellem is the agent of choice. Seven of the top 15 draft picks this year were his.

99 JON LITNER President, comcast sports group
His regional sports networks are giving Fox a run for its money, with SportsNet New York leading the charge.

100 SERENA WILLIAMS Tennis champ
Already in ads for Hewlett-Packard, Nike, and Kraft, the winner of the 2008 U.S. Open and a gold medalist in Beijing is likely to pick up more endorsements.

 

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امثال و حکم ; ٢:٥٥ ‎ب.ظ ; دوشنبه ٤ آذر ۱۳۸٧

Most Influential Asians of the 20th Century

Most Influential Asians of the 20th Century

Hirohito
Ho Chi Minh
Pol Pot
Issey Miyake
Daisuke Inoue
Rabindranath Tagore
Sun Yat-sen
Mohandas Gandhi
Sukarno
Mao Zedong
Lee Kuan Yew
Deng Xiaoping
Corazon Aquino
Park Chung Hee
Eiji Toyoda
King Rama
Swaminathan
Akira Kurosawa
Dalai Lama
Akio Morita
[Source: Nisid Hajari. "Asians of the Century" in Time Asia, August 23-30, 1999 Vol. 154 No. 7/8; URL: http://www.cnn.com/ASIANOW/time/asia/magazine/1999/990823/cover1.html]

 

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بدون شک سایت آلابولا بهترین سایتی هست که تا حالا دیدم. در این سایت مطالب متنوع علمی, تفریحی, آموزشی بصورت آورده شده است که دیدن آن را به همه توصیه می کنم.

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امثال و حکم ; ٢:٥٤ ‎ب.ظ ; دوشنبه ٤ آذر ۱۳۸٧

Religious Affiliation of History's 100 Most Influential People

The following list of influential figures from world history comes from Michael H. Hart's book The 100: A Ranking of the Most Influential Persons in History. In the book, Hart provides brief biographies of each of the individuals, as well as reasons for their ranking.
Adherents.com takes no position regarding the validity of Hart's rankings. Certainly ranking the relative historical influence of individuals is a subjective process. We welcome and will by happy to post comments from readers suggesting alternative rankings or names of influential individuals who should be included in the "Top 100." (Please send suggestions to webmaster@adherents.com).

This list of names and their ranks are solely the work of Michael H. Hart. The columns "Religious Affiliation" and "Influence" are the work of Adherents.com. We will readily modify notes if there are any inaccuracies.

Note that many influential philosophies (such as Marxist Communism or Confucianism) are not always classified as organized "religions" in the traditional sense, but are classified as such by sociologists because they are a primary motivational worldview for individuals, cultures or subcultures. Also, many founders never considered themselves adherents of philosophies or religions which later bore their name (e.g., Martin Luther and Lutheranism).

In the table below, where there are two religions listed, the first one is the religion the person was born into. The second was the religion or philosophy the person later joined or founded. Comments in the "Influence" column are in bold when the influence is mainly in the realm of religion and philosophy.


Rank Name Religious Affiliation Influence
1 Muhammad Islam Prophet of Islam; conqueror of Arabia; Hart recognized that ranking Muhammad first might be controversial, but felt that, from a secular historian's perspective, this was the correct choice because Muhammad is the only man to have been both a founder of a major world religion and a major military/political leader. More
2 Isaac Newton Anglican (rejected Trinitarianism, i.e.,
Athanasianism; believed in the Arianism
of the Primitive Church) physicist; theory of universal gravitation; laws of motion
3 Jesus Christ * Judaism; Christianity founder of Christianity
4 Buddha Hinduism; Buddhism founder of Buddhism
5 Confucius Confucianism founder of Confucianism
6 St. Paul Judaism; Christianity proselytizer of Christianity
7 Ts'ai Lun Chinese traditional religion inventor of paper
8 Johann Gutenberg Catholic developed movable type; printed Bibles
9 Christopher Columbus Catholic explorer; led Europe to Americas
10 Albert Einstein Jewish physicist; relativity; Einsteinian physics
11 Louis Pasteur Catholic scientist; pasteurization
12 Galileo Galilei Catholic astronomer; accurately described heliocentric solar system
13 Aristotle Platonism / Greek philosophy influential Greek philosopher
14 Euclid Platonism / Greek philosophy mathematician; Euclidian geometry
15 Moses Judaism major prophet of Judaism
16 Charles Darwin Anglican (nominal); Unitarian biologist; described Darwinian evolution, which had theological impact on many religions
17 Shih Huang Ti Chinese traditional religion Chinese emperor
18 Augustus Caesar Roman state paganism ruler
19 Nicolaus Copernicus Catholic (priest) astronomer; taught heliocentricity
20 Antoine Laurent Lavoisier Catholic father of modern chemistry; philosopher; economist
21 Constantine the Great Roman state paganism; Christianity Roman emperor who completely legalized Christianity, leading to its status as state religion. Convened the First Council of Nicaea that produced the Nicene Creed, which rejected Arianism (one of two major strains of Christian thought) and established Athanasianism (Trinitarianism, the other strain) as "official doctrine."
22 James Watt Presbyterian (lapsed) developed steam engine
23 Michael Faraday Sandemanian physicist; chemist; discovery of magneto-electricity
24 James Clerk Maxwell Presbyterian; Anglican; Baptist physicist; electromagnetic spectrum
25 Martin Luther Catholic; Lutheran founder of Protestantism and Lutheranism
26 George Washington Episcopalian first president of United States
27 Karl Marx Jewish; Lutheran;
Atheist; Marxism/Communism founder of Marxism, Marxist Communism
28 Orville and Wilbur Wright United Brethren inventors of airplane
29 Genghis Khan Mongolian shamanism Mongol conqueror
30 Adam Smith Liberal Protestant economist; philosopher; expositor of capitalism; author: The Theory of Moral Sentiments
31 Edward de Vere
a.k.a. William Shakespeare Catholic; Anglican literature; also wrote 6 volumes about philosophy and religion
32 John Dalton Quaker chemist; physicist; atomic theory; law of partial pressures (Dalton's law)
33 Alexander the Great Greek state paganism conqueror
34 Napoleon Bonaparte Catholic (nominal) French conqueror
35 Thomas Edison Congregationalist; agnostic inventor of light bulb, phonograph, etc.
36 Antony van Leeuwenhoek Dutch Reformed microscopes; studied microscopic life
37 William T.G. Morton ?? pioneer in anesthesiology
38 Guglielmo Marconi Catholic and Anglican inventor of radio
39 Adolf Hitler Nazism; born/raised in, but rejected Catholicism conqueror; led Axis Powers in WWII
40 Plato Platonism / Greek philosophy founder of Platonism
41 Oliver Cromwell Puritan (Protestant) British political and military leader
42 Alexander Graham Bell Unitarian/Universalist inventor of telephone *
43 Alexander Fleming Catholic penicillin; advances in bacteriology, immunology and chemotherapy
44 John Locke raised Puritan (Anglican);
Liberal Christian philosopher and liberal theologian
45 Ludwig van Beethoven Catholic composer
46 Werner Heisenberg Lutheran a founder of quantum mechanics; discovered principle of uncertainty; head of Nazi Germany's nuclear program
47 Louis Daguerre ?? an inventor/pioneer of photography
48 Simon Bolivar Catholic (nominal); Atheist National hero of Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia
49 Rene Descartes Catholic Rationalist philosopher and mathematician
50 Michelangelo Catholic painter; sculptor; architect
51 Pope Urban II Catholic called for First Crusade
52 'Umar ibn al-Khattab Islam Second Caliph; expanded Muslim empire
53 Asoka Buddhism king of India who converted to and spread Buddhism
54 St. Augustine Greek state paganism; Manicheanism; Catholic Early Christian theologian
55 William Harvey Anglican (nominal) described the circulation of blood; wrote Essays on the Generation of Animals, the basis for modern embryology
56 Ernest Rutherford ?? physicist; pioneer of subatomic physics
57 John Calvin Protestant; Calvinism Protestant reformer; founder of Calvinism
58 Gregor Mendel Catholic (Augustinian monk) Mendelian genetics
59 Max Planck Protestant physicist; thermodynamics
60 Joseph Lister Quaker principal discoverer of antiseptics which greatly reduced surgical mortality
61 Nikolaus August Otto ?? built first four-stroke internal combustion engine
62 Francisco Pizarro Catholic Spanish conqueror in South America; defeated Incas
63 Hernando Cortes Catholic conquered Mexico for Spain; through war and introduction of new diseases he largely destroyed Aztec civilization
64 Thomas Jefferson Episcopalian; Deist 3rd president of United States
65 Queen Isabella I Catholic Spanish ruler
66 Joseph Stalin Russian Orthodox; Atheist; Marxism revolutionary and ruler of USSR
67 Julius Caesar Roman state paganism Roman emperor
68 William the Conqueror Catholic laid foundation of modern England
69 Sigmund Freud Jewish; atheist; Freudian psychology/psychoanalysis founded Freudian school of psychology/psychoanalysis (i.e., the "religion of Freudianism")
70 Edward Jenner Anglican discoverer of the vaccination for smallpox
71 Wilhelm Conrad Roentgen ?? discovered X-rays
72 Johann Sebastian Bach Lutheran; Catholic composer
73 Lao Tzu Taoism founder of Taoism
74 Voltaire raised in Jansenism;
later Deist writer and philosopher; wrote Candide
75 Johannes Kepler Lutheran astronomer; planetary motions
76 Enrico Fermi Catholic initiated the atomic age; father of atom bomb
77 Leonhard Euler Calvinist physicist; mathematician; differential and integral calculus and algebra
78 Jean-Jacques Rousseau born Protestant;
converted as a teen to Catholic;
later Deist French deistic philosopher and author
79 Nicoli Machiavelli Catholic wrote The Prince (influential political treatise)
80 Thomas Malthus Anglican (cleric) economist; wrote Essay on the Principle of Population
81 John F. Kennedy Catholic U.S. President who led first successful effort by humans to travel to another "planet"
82 Gregory Pincus Jewish endocrinologist; developed birth-control pill
83 Mani Manicheanism founder of Manicheanism, once a world religion which rivaled Christianity in strength
84 Lenin Russian Orthodox;
Atheist; Marxism/Communism Russian ruler
85 Sui Wen Ti Chinese traditional religion unified China
86 Vasco da Gama Catholic navigator; discovered route from Europe to India around Cape Hood
87 Cyrus the Great Zoroastrianism founder of Persian empire
88 Peter the Great Russian Orthodox forged Russia into a great European nation
89 Mao Zedong Atheist; Communism; Maoism founder of Maoism, Chinese form of Communism
90 Francis Bacon Anglican philosopher; delineated inductive scientific method
91 Henry Ford Protestant developed automobile; achievement in manufacturing and assembly
92 Mencius Confucianism philosopher; founder of a school of Confucianism
93 Zoroaster Zoroastrianism founder of Zoroastrianism
94 Queen Elizabeth I Anglican British monarch; restored Church of England to power after Queen Mary
95 Mikhail Gorbachev Russian Orthodox Russian premier who helped end Communism in USSR
96 Menes Egyptian paganism unified Upper and Lower Egypt
97 Charlemagne Catholic Holy Roman Empire created with his baptism in 800 AD
98 Homer Greek paganism epic poet
99 Justinian I Catholic Roman emperor; reconquered Mediterranean empire; accelerated Catholic-Monophysite schism
100 Mahavira Hinduism; Jainism founder of Jainism

 

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بدون شک سایت آلابولا بهترین سایتی هست که تا حالا دیدم. در این سایت مطالب متنوع علمی, تفریحی, آموزشی بصورت آورده شده است که دیدن آن را به همه توصیه می کنم.

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امثال و حکم ; ٢:٥٢ ‎ب.ظ ; دوشنبه ٤ آذر ۱۳۸٧

Hotlist's Top 10 most searched for actors

Hotlist's Top 10 most searched for actors
by Lee Harvey, MSN Search Editor
While screen queens like Angelina Jolie and Halle Berry claim the lion’s share of your movie searches, their male counterparts are catching up fast thanks to starring roles in some of the year’s biggest blockbusters and an uncanny ability to milk their celeb status for all its worth. Meet the kings of cinematic searches as Hotlist counts down the Top 10 most searched for actors. Our chart has been compiled from searches on MSN UK and Live Search between December 1 2006 and May 18 2007.
10. Wentworth Miller - Wentworth’s role as escapee-in-chief Michael Schofield in all-action rollercoaster US drama Prison Break catapulted him to the upper reaches of Hotlist’s TV searches. British-born Miller received a Golden Globe nomination for best performance in a television series.

9. Gerard Butler - Until this year, Glaswegian born Gerard was best known for his performance in the movie adaptation of The Phantom of the Opera. His lead role as King Leonidas in the semi-animated historical epic 300 propelled him into the search stratosphere.

8. Daniel Craig - Craig singlehandedly reinvigorated the James Bond movie franchise after taking over as 007 from Pierce Brosnan. His performance in Casino Royale immediately silenced critics and also won him the best actor award at the Evening Standard British Film Awards. None of his 007 predecessors, not even Roger Moore or Sean Connery, were honoured for their portrayals of Bond.

7. Orlando Bloom - Having made his initial mainstream breakthrough as Legolas in the Lord of the Rings trilogy, Orlando’s role as Will Turner in the Pirates of the Caribbean films kept his search star rising. He has now played starring roles in four of the highest grossing movies of all time.

6. Sylvester Stallone - An improbable comeback at the age of 60 in the movie Rocky Balboa allowed Sly a return to Hotlist glory. Off screen, he hit the headlines after being accused of smuggling hormone growth supplements into Australia and a hilarious on-field appearance at Everton’s Goodison Park. Determined to show his love for the beautiful game, he even described the goal conceded by the homeside as “offside, or whatever”.

5. Keanu Reeves - Overcoming his much-maligned acting limitations, Keanu’s 20-year cinematic career peaked with his central role in The Matrix trilogy. Most recently seen in Richard Linklater’s movie adaptation of Philip K Dick’s A Scanner Darkly, Keanu’s global fame guarantees consistent search success regardless of the regularity of his on-screen performances.

4. Tom Cruise - Despite his status as an icon of modern mainstream cinema, it’s Tom’s off-screen interests that are responsible for his recent search success. His marriage to Katie Holmes was 2006’s biggest celebrity wedding and his friendship with the Beckhams certainly hasn’t harmed his search popularity. More recently, the Scientology debate, famously refueled by BBC reporter John Sweeney, got you searching for Tom again.

3. Daniel Radcliffe - Britain’s richest teenager ditched his specs and dropped his kecks as he trod the boards opposite Joanna Christie in the play Equus. Searches for the Harry Potter star soared as a consequence and look certain to remain high as the final adaptation of JK Rowling’s series hits cinemas later this year.

2. Johnny Depp - Reprising his role as Captain Jack Sparrow saw Johnny plunder his way to Hotlist success. Off screen, a health scare for his daughter Lily Rose and his marriage proposal to long-term partner Vanessa Paradis also got you searching.

1. Brad Pitt - Being one half of one the world’s most famous celebrity couples gives Brad immediate search kudos. Along with wife Angelina Jolie, Brad was listed among Time magazine’s Top 100 most influential people in the world. On-screen, his role alongside Cate Blanchett and Gael Garcia Bernal in much-hyped Oscar-winning movie Babel propelled him to the top spot.

 

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بدون شک سایت آلابولا بهترین سایتی هست که تا حالا دیدم. در این سایت مطالب متنوع علمی, تفریحی, آموزشی بصورت آورده شده است که دیدن آن را به همه توصیه می کنم.

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امثال و حکم ; ٢:٤٢ ‎ب.ظ ; دوشنبه ٤ آذر ۱۳۸٧

Hotlist's Top 10 most searched for actresses

Hotlist's Top 10 most searched for actresses
By Lee Harvey, MSN Search Editor
With a summer of movie blockbusters well under way, it’s time to reveal the cinematic sirens whose performances have got you searching over the last 6 months. Despite the multi-award winning performance of Dame Helen Mirren, not one British actress received enough search support to earn a place on Hotlist’s most searched for female film stars. We count down your favourite 10 screen queens in reverse order.
10. Eva Longoria - Globally recognised for her portrayal of Gabrielle Solis in Desperate Housewives, Eva hit the big screen with a lead role in The Sentinel alongside Kiefer Sutherland and Kim Basinger and your searches duly followed.

9. Katie Holmes - The former Dawson’s Creek star had a quiet time in terms of filmmaking. However, a celebrity friendship with the Beckhams, a picturesque Italian wedding with Tom Cruise and the six month mystery surrounding the lack of pictures of baby Suri Cruise earned Katie her place on our chart.

8. Jennifer Lopez - Despite the global fame, endless press coverage and countless diva style strops, she’s still Jenny from the block! With her own clothing line and a music career to bolster her acting output, it’s no surprise J-Lo was recently named as one of Forbes’ Top 20 Richest Women in Entertainment.

7. Jessica Simpson - Having built a successful pop career, Jess branched out into movies with her role in 2005’s Dukes of Hazzard. Her latest role in Employee of the Month failed to earn her any critical acclaim but that didn’t stop you searching for her.

6. Jessica Alba - Lauded for her performances in Sin City and the Fantastic Four, Ms Alba remained high on Hotlist’s search chart throughout 2006. Although she didn’t star in any films, she presented the MTV Movie Awards and was named as one of the world’s sexiest celebs by a leading gentlemen’s publication.

5. Halle Berry - With an Oscar and a Razzie on her mantelpiece, not to mention a stint as a Bond girl in Die Another Day, Halle’s movie career has had its share of ups and downs. Her role in X-Men 2: The Last Stand plus her glamorous red carpet appearances at the Academy Awards, the BAFTAs and the People’s Choice Awards have made her a perennial fixture amongst Hotlist’s top searched stars.

4. Beyonce Knowles - Not content with ruling the world’s music charts, Beyonce now looks set to rule Hollywood! Her most recent step on the path to world movie domination was to star in Dreamgirls although this may have backfired after her co-star Jennifer Hudson claimed the Best Supporting Actress gong at the Oscars.

3. Jennifer Aniston - After a series of mediocre rom-coms, the former Friends star’s movie life has never really scaled the heights of her TV career. However, starring opposite soon-to-be-ex-boyfriend Vince Vaughn in The Break-Up kept you searching for Jen. She received a further boost when she was named amongst Forbes magazine’s Richest Women in Entertainment in January.

2. Lindsay Lohan - Starring in turkeys like Mean Girls didn’t help Lindsay become one of your favourite Hotlist search stars. Her wild child lifestyle, including a hectic London clubbing stint in the company of Calum Best, kept her in the headlines but also led to her checking into rehab.

1. Angelina Jolie - When you’ve been dubbed the world’s sexiest woman, you don’t have to rely on making new movies or helping people to maintain your search success. Not that anyone’s told Angelina. With an upcoming starring role in The Good Shepherd and her work as United Nations Goodwill Ambassador, Ms Jolie claims top spot as Hotlist’s most searched for actress.

 

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امثال و حکم ; ٢:٤٠ ‎ب.ظ ; دوشنبه ٤ آذر ۱۳۸٧

Top Ten Asians Actors and Actresses in Hollywood

Top Ten Asians Actors and Actresses in Hollywood
By: S M Mehdi Hassan
This is the age of Asian century. Asian countries are now rising in the world economic stage. Asian performedrs are doing great in Hollywood too.
Asian actors have been working in Hollywood movies for a long time. Previously, the actors used to work in small roles but now the scenario has changed. Many films are being produced in Hollywood, where Asian actors are playing the lead roles. Not only actors, directors like Ang Lee, John Woo, M. Night Shyamalan have mesmerized the American audience with their creation. Here is a list of top ten male and female Asian actors and actresses in Hollywood.
Here, I have made a list of top ten 10 actors and actresses of Asian origin in Hollywood movies. I have selected 5 males and 5 females in this regard.
1. Chow Yun Fat:
The guy clad in a black suit enters the night club and next three seconds there was nothing but gun shots, bloods and death. You all remember the first of the movie titled “Replacement Killers.” The film was a not successful but movies like The Corruptor, Replacement Killers, and Anna and the King and finally Oscar winning Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon established Chow Yun Fat as an international actor. This 6' 1" well built, athletic actor is one of the most successful actors of Hong Kong. Born in the island of Lamma, Chow’s family moved to Hong Kong in 1965. In 1973, he applied in TVB, as an actor trainee and within next ten years he became a very successful TV series actor. He first achieved success as a movie actor with the movie A better Tomorrow. After the success of A better Tomorrow, Chow permanent got into movie business.
2. Jet Li
He is the most famous Asian film star after Jackie Chan now. At the age of eight, he started learning martial art in Beijing Wushu Academy, won five gold medals and by the time he was a teenager became a coach. At this time he got his first movie break Shaolin Temple. Movies like Once upon a time in China, Fist of Legend, High Risk or Meltdown (American version) turned Jet Li into a big name in Hong Kong. He turned to Hollywood in 1998. In the sequel of a hit movie Lethal Weapon 4 he played the role of a villain. The movie was successful and it established Jet Li’s position in Hollywood. Gradually, he rose to fame with movies like The One, Cradle to the Grave, and The Hero. Li is now planning to retire.
3. Jackie Chan
Today, he is the most famous Asian actor in Hollywood. Born in April, 1954, Jackie’s father was a chef and mother was a house keeper. He first learned martial art from his father. Jackie’s parents sent him to China Drama Academy. While he was in that school, he got his first movie break in a film titled Seven Little Valiant Fighters: Big and Little Wong Tin Bar. At the age of seventeen he graduated from the academy and started working as a stuntman in Hong Kong films. He was very successful as a stuntman. In 1978, he became very successful with the movie Drunken Master. The 80’s and the 90’s were the most prolific times in Jackie’s career. He along with his fellow students of China Drama School was working in the film industry and they were very successful. From the beginning Chan does all the stunts of his movies. In 1983, after making a movie titled Project A he formed his own official stunt team. Jackie became a big name in Hollywood after Rumble in the Bronx. Then movies like Rush Hour and Shanghai Knights propelled him into the top position in Hollywood.
4. Bruce Lee
This man does not need any introduction to the film goers and martial artists. He is a legend both in films and martial art. Born in 1940, Bruce Lee is an American born martial artist, actor and instructor. He introduced the famous style of martial art known as Jeet Kune Do. Since his parents were in acting profession, Bruce was exposed to acting at a very early age. He started learning martial arts at the age of twelve. His first major break came with the mini series Green Hornet in 1974. His success came after Big Boss in 1971. The young people of China liked the new hero, the bringer of justice with his fist. With movies like Fist of fury, Way of the Dragon turned him into a major film star in Hong Kong. Now the Hollywood directors could not ignore him. In 1973, Warner Brothers produced Enter the Dragon, one of the most successful movies produced by the company. While working for this movie, this legendary actor died. Still now, nobody could pin point what really caused Lee’s death at such a young age.
5. Sammo Hung Kam-Bo
One of the members of The Seven Little Fortunes which included Jackie chan, Yuen Bao, Sammo is a famous Kung fu movie, actor, producer and director. Those of you who remembered the opening scene of Enter the Dragon, where Bruce Lee fights with a chubby looking fighter was Sammo. Like Jackie, Sammo also started his training in Master Yu Jim Yuen Opera Academy in 1959. While studying here, he had an accident which kept him bed ridden for many days and he grew fat. Hung’s ride to success began in 1970, when he started working in the Golden Harvest studio. A movie titled The Fast Sword propelled his career. In 1973, he worked in two movies made by famous Taiwanese director King Hu: A Touch Of Zen and The Fate Of Lee Khan. In 1973, he worked with Kung fu legend Bruce Lee in Enter the Dragon. Today, Sammo is one of most established and respected actors in Hong Kong film industry.
6. Gong li
Looking at her face, one can never understand her true age. She is ever young. Gong Li, daughter of a professor of economics, has excelled in singing and dancing in her school. Despite failing twice, she got admission in Beijing Central College of Drama. In her career, most of the time she acted in movies directed by Zhang Yimou. Zhang’s movies brought her success, name and fame. She was offered by Zhang in 1987, when she was a student, to work in the lead role of his first film Red Shorghum. The movie won Golden Bear award in Berlin film festival. She did not appear in many Hollywood movies. Her latest appearance is in Miami Vice, in 2006. Last year, her performance in Memoirs of a Geisha was widely acclaimed. In the movie she spoke in English.
7. Lucy Liu
This beautiful “Angel” started her acting career when she was studying in the University of Michigan. In her senior years, she auditioned for a small role, but later, was chosen to play the lead character. From there, she decided to try her luck as an actress. From Michigan, she came to Vegas and started auditioning and worked at a food shop. In the popular mini series “Beverly Hills, 90210” she made a guest appearance. Her break came in 1997. She got to play the character of an Asian Lawyer, Ling Woo, in a TV series titled Ally Mcbeal. Her performance caught the attention of the audience and filmmakers. The year 2000 was very very lucky for Lucy. She landed with a role in the movie Charlie’s Angels that established her as an actress in Hollywood.
8. Michele Yeoh
She is among the few Asian women to work in a James Bond Movie. Born in Malaysia, Michele is fluent in English and Malay. Also knows as “Michelle Khan,” she was enlisted on People Magazine’s fifty most beautiful people in the world in 1997. She started ballet dancing at the age of four. In 1980, she went to England’s Royal Academy of Dance. In the beginning, she dreamt of becoming a professional ballet dancer but an injury in her spinal chord ended her dream. Yeoh’s film career started in Hong Kong. She started as model and then got offer in action movies with Jackie Chan. Her performance in Police Story made her very popular. Then she acted in a number of martial art movies. Her first Hollywood movie was Tomorrow Never Dies in 1997. She also acted in Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon (2000), and Memoirs of a Geisha (2005).
9. Ziyi Zhang
Born to an economist father and kindergarten mother, Ziyi Zhang was very small and weak as a child. Her parents sent her to dance school so that she could grow strong. In her middle and secondary school, she studied dance in Beijing Dance Academy. At the age of seventeen, she got admission in China Central Drama College. Her first film was The Road Home with director, Zhang Yimou. A year later, she landed with a big role in Ang Lee’s Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon. The character played by Zhang had to do fighting on the screen. She worked really hard and the movie was successful establishing Zhang as a big star. Then she starred in Rush Hour 2 with Jackie Chan. Hero was nominated for Oscar and House of Flying Daggers was nominated for Golden Globe award. Memoirs of Geisha in 2005 was widely praised by the critics.
10. Sandra Oh
She was born to Korean parents who were immigrants in Canada. In her school years, she played flutes, tried ballet dancing and finally settled down in acting. As a result, she joined the school drama club. After finishing her drama study in National Theatre School of Montreal, she went to London to do a stage play. Sandra Oh’s film career started with two biographical TV films in Canada: The Diary of Evelyn Lau and Clarkson’s life. For her outstanding performance in the Canadian film Double Happiness, Oh won Genie Award. In USA, Oh became popular after starring in Under the Tuscan Sun. She worked in another TV series titled Grey’s Anatomy. For her performance in this TV series, Oh won Golden Globe award and Screen Actor Guild award.

 

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امثال و حکم ; ٢:۳٩ ‎ب.ظ ; دوشنبه ٤ آذر ۱۳۸٧

Hillary (Rodham) Clinton Biography

Senator, lawyer, former First Lady. Hillary Diane Rodham was born on October 26, 1947 in Chicago and raised in Park Ridge, Illinois, a picturesque suburb located 15 miles northwest of downtown Chicago.

She was the eldest daughter of Hugh Rodham, a prosperous fabric store owner, and Dorothy Emma Howell Rodham. Hillary had two younger brothers, including Hugh, Jr. (born 1950) and Anthony (born 1954).

As a young woman, Hillary Rodham was active in young Republican groups and campaigned for Republican presidential nominee Barry Goldwater in 1964. She was inspired to work in some form of public service after hearing a speech in Chicago by the Reverend Martin Luther King and became a Democrat in 1968.

Rodham attended Wellesley College; she was active in student politics and was elected Senior Class president before she graduated in 1969. She then attended Yale Law School, where she met Bill Clinton. Graduating with honors in 1973, she also attended one post-graduate year of study on children and medicine at Yale Child Study Center.

Hillary worked at various jobs during her summers as a college student. In 1971, she first came to Washington, D.C to work on U.S. Senator Walter Mondale's subcommittee on migrant workers. In the summer of 1972, she worked in the western states for the campaign of Democratic presidential nominee George McGovern.
In the spring of 1974, Rodham became a member of the presidential impeachment inquiry staff, advising the Judiciary Committee of the House of Representatives during the Watergate Scandal. After President Richard M. Nixon resigned in August, she became a faculty member of the University of Arkansas Law School in Fayetteville, where her Yale Law School classmate and boyfriend Bill Clinton was teaching as well.

Rodham married Bill Clinton on October 11, 1975, at their home in Fayetteville. Before he proposed marriage, Clinton had secretly purchased a small house that she had remarked that she liked. When he proposed marriage to her and she accepted, he revealed that they owned the house. Their daughter, Chelsea Victoria, was born February 27, 1980.

In 1976, she worked on Jimmy Carter’s successful campaign for president while husband Bill was elected Attorney General. He was elected governor in 1978 at age 32, lost re-election in 1980, but came back to win in 1982, 1984, 1986 (when the term of office was expanded from two to four years) and 1990.

Hillary kept her maiden name, joined the Rose Law Firm in Little Rock and in 1977 was appointed to part-time chairman of the Legal Services Corporation by President Carter.

As First Lady of Arkansas for a dozen years (1979-1981, 1983-1992), she chaired the Arkansas Educational Standards Committee, co-founded the Arkansas Advocates for Children and Families and served on the boards of the Arkansas Children's Hospital, Legal Services and the Children's Defense Fund.

During this period, she and her husband invested in the Whitewater real estate project. The project's bank, Morgan Guaranty Savings and Loan failed, costing the federal government $73 million. Whitewater later became the subject of congressional hearings and an independent counsel investigation.

She also served on the boards of TCBY and Wal-Mart. In 1988 and 1991, The National Law Journal named her one of the 100 most powerful lawyers in America.

During the 1992 presidential campaign, she emerged as a dynamic and valued partner of her husband, and as president he named her to head the Task Force on National Health Reform (1993). The controversial commission produced a complicated plan which never came to the floor of either house. It was abandoned in September 1994.

Inevitably there were charges of everything from old-fashioned nepotism to new-fashioned feminism, and she became the butt of both good-natured humor and vicious accusations. However, less partisan observers recognized her as simply an example of the new American woman.

She authored It Takes a Village: And Other Lessons Children Teach Us (1996) and donated the proceeds to children's hospitals. In it, she advocated for a society which meets all a child's needs.

In 1998, the White House was engulfed with the Monica Lewinsky sex scandal. Though she publicly supported her husband, Mrs. Clinton reportedly considered leaving her marriage. He was impeached, but the U.S. Senate failed to convict and he remained in office.

With her husband limited to two terms in the White House, Mrs. Clinton decided she would seek the U.S. Senate seat from New York held by Daniel Patrick Moynihan. He was retiring after four terms. Despite early problems, and charges of carpet bagging, Clinton beat popular Republican Rick Lazio by a surprisingly wide margin: 55 to 43 percent.

Clinton became the first wife of a president to seek and win national office and the first woman to be elected to the U.S. Senate from New York. She easily won re-election in November 2006.

Meantime, a volume of her memoirs, Living History, appeared in 2003.

In early 2007, Hillary Clinton announced her plans to strive for another first—to be the first female president. During the 2008 Democratic Primaries, Senator Clinton conceded her nomination when it became apparent that nominee Barack Obama held a majority of the delegate vote. She is currently under consideration for the position of Secretary of State. If she accepts the nomination, she will serve under president-elect Barack Obama in 2009.

 

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امثال و حکم ; ٢:٢٥ ‎ب.ظ ; دوشنبه ٤ آذر ۱۳۸٧

Rosa Parks Biography

Rosa Parks' childhood brought her early experiences with racial discrimination and activism for racial equality. After her parents separated, Rosa's mother moved the family to Pine Level, Alabama to live with her parents, Rose and Sylvester Edwards, on their farm. Both her grandparents were former slaves and strong advocates for racial equality. In one experience, Rosa's grandfather stood in front of their house with a shotgun while Ku Klux Klan members marched down the street. The city of Pine Level, Alabama had a new school building and bus transportation for white students while African American students walked to the one-room schoolhouse, often lacking desks and adequate school supplies.

Through the rest of Rosa's education, she attended segregated schools in Montgomery. In 1929, while a junior in the eleventh grade, she left school to attend to her sick grandmother in Pine Level. She never returned, but instead got a job at a shirt factory in Montgomery. In 1932, Rosa married a barber named Raymond Parks who was an active member of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP). With Raymond's support, Rosa Parks finished her high school degree in 1933. She soon became actively involved in civil rights issues my joining the Montgomery chapter of the NAACP in 1943, serving as the secretary to the president, E.D. Nixon until 1957.

Montgomery Bus Boycott
The Montgomery, Alabama city code required that all public transportation be segregated and that bus drivers had the "powers of a police officer of the city while in actual charge of any bus for the purposes of carrying out the provisions" of the code. While operating a bus, drivers were required to provide separate but equal accommodations for white and black passengers by assigning seats. This was accomplished with a line roughly in the middle of the bus separating white passengers in the front of the bus and African American passengers in the back. When an African American passenger boarded the bus, they had to get on at the front to pay their fare and then get off and re-board the bus at the back door. When the seats in the front of the bus filled up and more white passengers got on, the bus driver would move back the sign separating black and white passengers and, if necessary, ask black passengers give up their seat.

On December 1, 1955, after a long day at work at the Montgomery Fair department store, Rosa Parks boarded the Cleveland Avenue bus for home. She took a seat in the first of several rows designated for "colored" passengers. Though the city's bus ordinance did give drivers the authority to assign seats, it didn't specifically give them the authority to demand a passenger to give up a seat to anyone (regardless of color). However, Montgomery bus drivers had adopted the custom of requiring black passengers to give up their seats to white passengers, when no other seats were available. If the black passenger protested, the bus driver had the authority to refuse service and could call the police to have them removed.

As the bus Rosa was riding continued on its route, it began to fill with white passengers. Eventually, the bus was full and the driver noticed that several white passengers were standing in the aisle. He stopped the bus and moved the sign separating the two sections back one row and asked four black passengers to give up their seats. Three complied, but Rosa refused and remained seated. The driver demanded, "Why don't you stand up?" to which Rosa replied, "I don't think I should have to stand up." The driver called the police and had her arrested. Later, she recalled that her refusal wasn't because she was physically tired, but that she was tired of giving in.

The police arrested Rosa at the scene and charged her with violation of Chapter 6, section 11 of the Montgomery City code. She was taken to police headquarters where later that night she was released on bail. On December 8, Rosa faced trial and in a thirty-minute hearing was found guilty of violating a local ordinance. She was fined ten dollars, plus a four-dollar court fee.

On the evening Rosa Parks was arrested, E.D. Nixon, head of the local chapter of the NAACP, began plans to organize a boycott of Montgomery's city buses. Ads were placed in local papers and handbills were printed and distributed in black neighborhoods. Members of the African American community were asked to stay off the buses Monday, December 5 th in protest of Rosa's arrest. People were encouraged to stay home from work or school, take a cab or walk to work. With most of the African American community not riding the bus, organizers believed a longer boycott might be successful.

On Monday, December 5, 1955, a group of African-American community leaders gathered at Mt. Zion Church to discuss strategies. They determined that the effort required a new organization and strong leadership. They formed the "Montgomery Improvement Association" (MIA) and elected Montgomery newcomer Dr. Martin Luther King, the minister of the Dexter Avenue Baptist Church. The MIA believed that Rosa Parks' case provided an excellent opportunity to take further action to create real change.

With the success of Monday's refusal to ride the buses, the boycott continued. Some people carpooled. Others rode in African American-operated cabs. Most of the estimated 40,000 African American commuters walked, some as far as 20 miles to get to work. Dozens of the Montgomery public buses sat idle for months, severely crippling the transit company's finances. But the boycott faced strong resistance, with some segregationists retaliating with violence. Black churches were burned and both Martin Luther King and E.D. Nixon's homes were attacked. Other attempts were made to end the boycott as well. The taxi system used by the African American community to help people get around had its insurance canceled. Other blacks were arrested for violating an old law prohibiting boycotts.

But the African American community also took legal action. Armed with the Brown v. Board of Education decision that said separate but equal policies had no place in public education, a black legal team took the issue of segregation on public transit systems to federal court. In June of 1956, the court declared Alabama's racial segregation laws for public transit unconstitutional. The city appealed and on November 13, 1956, the Supreme Court upheld the lower court's ruling. With the transit company and downtown businesses suffering financial loss and the legal system ruling against them, the city of Montgomery had no choice but to lift the law requiring segregation on public buses. The combination of legal action, backed by the unrelenting determination of the African American community made the 382-day Montgomery Bus Boycott one of the largest and most successful mass movements against racial segregation in history.

Although she had become a symbol of the Civil Rights Movement, Rosa Parks suffered hardship as a result. She lost her job at the department store and her husband lost his after his boss forbade him to discuss his wife or their legal case. They were unable to find work and eventually left Montgomery. Rosa Parks moved her family - husband and mother - to Detroit, Michigan. There she made a new life for herself, working as a secretary and receptionists in U.S. Representative John Conyer's congressional office in Detroit. She also served on the board of the Planned Parenthood Federation of America. In 1987, along with Elaine Eason Steele, a long-time friend, she founded the Rosa and Raymond Parks Institute for Self-Development. The institute runs the "Pathways to Freedom" bus tours, introducing young people to important civil rights and Underground Railroad sites throughout the country. In 1992, she published Rosa Parks: My Story, an autobiography recounting her life in the segregated South. In 1995, she published her memoirs entitled Quiet Strength which focuses on the role religious faith played in her life.

Legacy
Rosa Parks received many accolades during her lifetime including the Spingarn Medal, the NAACP's highest award. She also received the Martin Luther King Jr. Award. On September 9, 1996 President Bill Clinton awarded Rosa Parks the Presidential Medal of Freedom, the highest honor given by the U.S. executive branch. The next year, she was awarded the Congressional Gold Medal, the highest award given by the U.S. legislative branch. In 1999, Time magazine named Rosa Parks one of the 20 most influential people of the twentieth century.

On October 24, 2005, at the age of ninety-two, Rosa Parks quietly died in her apartment. She had been diagnosed the previous year with progressive dementia. Her death was marked by several memorial services, among them lying in state at the Capitol Rotunda in Washington D.C. where an estimated 50,000 people viewed her casket. Rosa was interred between her husband and mother at Detroit's Woodlawn Cemetery in the chapel's mausoleum. Shortly after her death the chapel was renamed the Rosa L. Parks Freedom Chapel.

 

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امثال و حکم ; ٢:۱٩ ‎ب.ظ ; دوشنبه ٤ آذر ۱۳۸٧

Bill Gates Biography

Born William Henry Gates, III, on October 28, 1955, in Seattle, Washington. The son of a lawyer and a schoolteacher, Gates began to show an interest in computer programming at the age of 13 at the Lakeside School. Two years later, he created a device that could analyze traffic patterns with fellow student Paul Allen.

Bill Gates went to Harvard University in 1973. He had developed his first product while there—a program language for the first microcomputer called BASIC. Gates dropped out of Harvard in his junior year. He wanted to spend his time creating software, not in the classroom. In 1975, he founded Micro-Soft (later changed to Microsoft) with his longtime friend Paul Allen. Along with BASIC, Gates worked on the company's next big product called DOS, which is a basic operating system.

DOS led to the company's first huge success. In 1980, Gates made a deal with International Business Machines (IBM) to create a version of DOS for its line of personal computers. Soon DOS was the main operating system used by computer makers, making Microsoft a huge success and Bill Gates a very wealthy man. The first version of the Windows operating system debuted in 1985 and it eventually became the leading system. By this time, the company had more than 1,000 employees and $200 million in sales.

Gates, an astute businessman, continuously looked for ways to grow his company. Microsoft developed a variety of software applications, ranging from word-processing programs to Internet browsers. His efforts paid off handsomely. Gates has become the world's wealthiest person in the United States with an estimated net worth of $50 billion in 2006.

Some say Bill Gates achieved this level of success through questionable business tactics. He was known as a tough competitor in the business world, and some thought that Microsoft was using its operating system as a way to expand its market share for other applications. For example, the Windows operating system came with the Internet Explorer Web browser, giving Microsoft an advantage over other browser application companies. The U.S. Department of Justice thought that Microsoft may have stepped over the line and sued the company in 1998 for alleged antitrust violations. The court battle went on for years, but eventually a settlement was reached in 2001.

For a man who worked tirelessly for years, Gates began to focus on other aspects of his life beginning in the 1990s. In 1994, he married Melinda French. The couple has three children together. They also established the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation in 2000, which works on global health and education issues. Time magazine named the couple—along with singer Bono—as its Persons of Year in 2005 for their charitable efforts.

In June 2008, 52 year-old Bill Gates officially retired after 33 years of running the day-to-day operations of Microsoft and devote his time to the foundation's projects and causes. He will remain part-time chairman of the board. The world's wealthiest man is putting his money to work to help eradicate disease and improve schools.

 

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امثال و حکم ; ٢:۱٧ ‎ب.ظ ; دوشنبه ٤ آذر ۱۳۸٧

Thomas (Alva) Edison Biography

Thomas (Alva) Edison Biography (1847 - 1931)

(born Feb. 11, 1847, Milan, Ohio, U.S.—died Oct. 18, 1931, West Orange, N.J.) American inventor who, singly or jointly, held a world record 1,093 patents. In addition, he created the world's first industrial research laboratory.
Edison was the quintessential American inventor in the era of Yankee ingenuity. He began his career in 1863, in the adolescence of the telegraph industry, when virtually the only source of electricity was primitive batteries putting out a low-voltage current. Before he died, in 1931, he had played a critical role in introducing the modern age of electricity. From his laboratories and workshops emanated the phonograph, the carbon-button transmitter for the telephone speaker and microphone, the incandescent lamp, a revolutionary generator of unprecedented efficiency, the first commercial electric light and power system, an experimental electric railroad, and key elements of motion-picture apparatus, as well as a host of other inventions.

Edison was the seventh and last child—the fourth surviving—of Samuel Edison, Jr., and Nancy Elliot Edison. At an early age he developed hearing problems, which have been variously attributed but were most likely due to a familial tendency to mastoiditis. Whatever the cause, Edison's deafness strongly influenced his behaviour and career, providing the motivation for many of his inventions.

Early years
In 1854 Samuel Edison became the lighthouse keeper and carpenter on the Fort Gratiot military post near Port Huron, Mich., where the family lived in a substantial home. Alva, as the inventor was known until his second marriage, entered school there and attended sporadically for five years. He was imaginative and inquisitive, but because much instruction was by rote and he had difficulty hearing, he was bored and was labeled a misfit. To compensate, he became an avid and omnivorous reader. Edison's lack of formal schooling was not unusual. At the time of the Civil War the average American had attended school a total of 434 days—little more than two years' schooling by today's standards.

ادامه مطلب
امثال و حکم ; ۱:٢۳ ‎ب.ظ ; دوشنبه ٤ آذر ۱۳۸٧

Albert Einstein Biogaphy

Albert Einstein was born at Ulm, in Württemberg, Germany, on March 14, 1879. Six weeks later the family moved to Munich, where he later on began his schooling at the Luitpold Gymnasium. Later, they moved to Italy and Albert continued his education at Aarau, Switzerland and in 1896 he entered the Swiss Federal Polytechnic School in Zurich to be trained as a teacher in physics and mathematics. In 1901, the year he gained his diploma, he acquired Swiss citizenship and, as he was unable to find a teaching post, he accepted a position as technical assistant in the Swiss Patent Office. In 1905 he obtained his doctor's degree.

During his stay at the Patent Office, and in his spare time, he produced much of his remarkable work and in 1908 he was appointed Privatdozent in Berne. In 1909 he became Professor Extraordinary at Zurich, in 1911 Professor of Theoretical Physics at Prague, returning to Zurich in the following year to fill a similar post. In 1914 he was appointed Director of the Kaiser Wilhelm Physical Institute and Professor in the University of Berlin. He became a German citizen in 1914 and remained in Berlin until 1933 when he renounced his citizenship for political reasons and emigrated to America to take the position of Professor of Theoretical Physics at Princeton*. He became a United States citizen in 1940 and retired from his post in 1945.

After World War II, Einstein was a leading figure in the World Government Movement, he was offered the Presidency of the State of Israel, which he declined, and he collaborated with Dr. Chaim Weizmann in establishing the Hebrew University of Jerusalem.

Einstein always appeared to have a clear view of the problems of physics and the determination to solve them. He had a strategy of his own and was able to visualize the main stages on the way to his goal. He regarded his major achievements as mere stepping-stones for the next advance.

At the start of his scientific work, Einstein realized the inadequacies of Newtonian mechanics and his special theory of relativity stemmed from an attempt to reconcile the laws of mechanics with the laws of the electromagnetic field. He dealt with classical problems of statistical mechanics and problems in which they were merged with quantum theory: this led to an explanation of the Brownian movement of molecules. He investigated the thermal properties of light with a low radiation density and his observations laid the foundation of the photon theory of light.

In his early days in Berlin, Einstein postulated that the correct interpretation of the special theory of relativity must also furnish a theory of gravitation and in 1916 he published his paper on the general theory of relativity. During this time he also contributed to the problems of the theory of radiation and statistical mechanics.

In the 1920's, Einstein embarked on the construction of unified field theories, although he continued to work on the probabilistic interpretation of quantum theory, and he persevered with this work in America. He contributed to statistical mechanics by his development of the quantum theory of a monatomic gas and he has also accomplished valuable work in connection with atomic transition probabilities and relativistic cosmology.

After his retirement he continued to work towards the unification of the basic concepts of physics, taking the opposite approach, geometrisation, to the majority of physicists.

Einstein's researches are, of course, well chronicled and his more important works include Special Theory of Relativity (1905), Relativity (English translations, 1920 and 1950), General Theory of Relativity (1916), Investigations on Theory of Brownian Movement (1926), and The Evolution of Physics (1938). Among his non-scientific works, About Zionism (1930), Why War? (1933), My Philosophy (1934), and Out of My Later Years (1950) are perhaps the most important.

Albert Einstein received honorary doctorate degrees in science, medicine and philosophy from many European and American universities. During the 1920's he lectured in Europe, America and the Far East and he was awarded Fellowships or Memberships of all the leading scientific academies throughout the world. He gained numerous awards in recognition of his work, including the Copley Medal of the Royal Society of London in 1925, and the Franklin Medal of the Franklin Institute in 1935.

Einstein's gifts inevitably resulted in his dwelling much in intellectual solitude and, for relaxation, music played an important part in his life. He married Mileva Maric in 1903 and they had a daughter and two sons; their marriage was dissolved in 1919 and in the same year he married his cousin, Elsa Löwenthal, who died in 1936. He died on April 18, 1955 at Princeton, New Jersey.
From Nobel Lectures, Physics 1901-1921, Elsevier Publishing Company, Amsterdam, 1967
This autobiography/biography was first published in the book series Les Prix Nobel. It was later edited and republished in Nobel Lectures. To cite this document, always state the source as shown above.

 

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امثال و حکم ; ۱:٠۳ ‎ب.ظ ; دوشنبه ٤ آذر ۱۳۸٧

The Most popular Search terms

overview

This page considers popular search terms.

It covers -

aggregate 'top ten' reports - what are claimed to be the most popular search terms from global and regional engines in 2004 and 2006
local variation
risk - are some terms more 'dangerous' than others?
It supplements the discussion of search engines (and search engine optimisation), search behaviour and internet metrics.

The following pages discuss real-time reporting of online searches and other perspectives, including 'colour pages' business directory searches and the most popular Wikipedia searches.

aggregate 'top ten' reports

The following lists highlight what are claimed as the most popular search terms for 2003-6 on a selection of major search engines.

The lists arguably are not truly representative of the global online population as a whole, for example because of significant regional variation (particularly outside the 'top ten' range).

They are indicative of uncertainties about data collection - with variation in what is supposedly the same population - and of marketing by engine operators or third parties such as metrics specialists. They might be construed as indicating that the different engines are attracting substantially different demographics.

2003

Google

1 Britney Spears
2 Harry Potter
3 Matrix
4 Shakira
5 David Beckham
6 50 Cent
7 Iraq
8 Lord of the Rings
9 Kobe Bryant
10 Tour de France AOL


Yahoo!

1 KaZaA
2 Harry Potter
3 American Idol
4 Britney Spears
5 50 Cent
6 Eminem
7 WWE
8 Paris Hilton
9 NASCAR
10 Christina Aguilera
2004

Google

1 Britney Spears
2 Paris Hilton
3 Christina Aguilera
4 Pamela Anderson
5 Chat
6 Games
7 Carmen Electra
8 Orlando Bloom
9 Harry Potter
10 mp3 Lycos

1 Janet Jackson
2 Paris Hilton
3 Clay Aiken
4 Britney Spears
5 Nick Berg
6 KaZaA
7 Tattoos
8 Pamela Anderson
9 Michelle Vieth
10 Poker
Yahoo!

1 American Idol
2 Paris Hilton
3 Jessica Simpson
4 Britney Spears
5 Harry Potter
6 WWE
7 Usher
8 NASCAR
9 NBA
10 NFL
AOL

1 Britney Spears
2 Paris Hilton
3 Janet Jackson
4 Oprah
5 Usher
6 Hilary Duff
7 Harry Potter
8 Pamela Anderson
9 Jessica Simpson
10 Orlando Bloom
2005

2006

Google

1 MySpace
2 Ares
3 Baidu
4 Wikipedia
5 Orkut
6 iTunes
7 Sky News
8 World of Warcraft
9 Green Day
10 Leonardo da Vinci AOL


Yahoo!

1 Britney Spears
2 50 Cent
3 Cartoon Network
4 Mariah Carey
5 Green Day
6 Jessica Simpson
7 Paris Hilton
8 Eminem
9 Ciara
10 Lindsay Lohan
2006

Google

1 bebo
2 myspace
3 world cup
4 metacafe
5 radioblog
6 wikipedia
7 video
8 rebelde
9 mininova
10 wiki

AOL

1 Weather
2 dictionary
3 dogs
4 American Idol
5 Maps
6 Cars
7 Games
8 Tatoo
9 Horoscopes
10 Lyrics

Yahoo!

1 Britney Spears
2 WWE
3 Shakira
4 Jessica Simpson
5 Paris Hilton
6 American Idol
7 Beyonce Knowles
8 Chris Brown
9 Pamela Anderson
10 Lindsay Lohan
Metrics specialist Hitwise claims that 'weather', 'directions', 'maps' and 'baby names' were among the top ten generic search terms in 2006.

local variation

Regional variation is illustrated by different results from Google's 'local' searches -

Australia

1 paris hilton
2 qantas
3 australian idol
4 trading post
5 virgin blue
6 delta goodrem
7 the oc
8 halo 2
9 ian thorpe
10 jennifer hawkins

Canada

1 inuyasha
2 family guy
3 avril lavigne
4 air canada
5 canadian tire
6 johnny depp
7 metallica
8 good charlotte
9 ashton kutcher
10 canadian idol

Denmark

1 biler
2 hunde
3 pokemon
4 tv2
5 dmi
6 dba
7 fodbold
8 ekstrabladet
9 dsb
10 peter plys

Italy

1 meteo
2 oroscopo
3 grande fratello
4 calciomercato
5 valentino rossi
6 inter
7 ferrari
8 lavoro
9 juventus
10 vasco rossi

Brazil

1 receita federal
2 hello kitty
3 bob esponja
4 olimpiadas
5 cifras
6 linkin park
7 avril lavigne
8 harry potter
9 folclore
10 bob marley

Netherlands

1 voetbal
2 ajax
3 beyonce
4 georgina verbaan
5 evisu
6 feyenoord
7 andre hazes
8 theo van gogh
9 olympische
10 ali b

In December 2006 Google reported that the most popular subjects for that year in the UK were

1 video
2 world cup
3 steve irwin
4 prison break
5 wiki
6 euro millions
7 big brother
8 lost
9 tfl [Transport for London]
10 weather

Globally the most popular Google searches for 2006 were

1. bebo
2. myspace
3. world cup
4. metacafe
5. radioblog
6. wikipedia
7. video
8. rebelde
9. mininova
10. wiki

The top Google News searches were

1. paris hilton
2. orlando bloom
3. cancer
4. podcasting
5. hurricane katrina
6. bankruptcy
7. martina hingis
8. autism
9. 2006 nfl draft
10. celebrity big brother

2006

Yahoo!'s top searches in Australia during 2006 were

1. Steve Irwin
2. Beaconsfield miners
3. Jobs
4. Cricket
5. Recipes
6. Petrol prices
7. Real Estate
8. Workchoices
9. Drought
10. Daylight savings

For Yahoo! elsewhere they were supposedly

UK
1 Heather Mills McCartney
2 Pete Burns
3 Big Brother
4 The Ordinary Boys
5 World Cup
6 Steve Irwin
7 Borat
8 Notting Hill Carnival
9 Zidane
10 Kate Moss

Canada
1 NHL
2 FIFA World Cup
3 American Idol
4 Rock Star: Supernova
5 WWE
6 Neopets
7 Revenue Canada
8 Days of Our Lives
9 Environment Canada
10 Jessica Simpson US

1 Britney Spears
2 WWE
3 Shakira
4 Jessica Simpson
5 Paris Hilton
6 American Idol
7 Beyonce Knowles
8 Chris Brown
9 Pamela Anderson
10 Lindsay Lohan

risk

Software vendor McAfee offered a perspective in its June 2007 The State of Search Engine Safety report on the 'riskiest' search terms, noting that some terms are most likely to return sites with spyware and other malicious code.

McAfee claims that terms related to music and technology are the most likely to point you to trouble, with 4% of search results supposedly leading to sites deemed "risky". 9% of adult sites were claimed by McAfee to produce spyware, adware or spam, compared with 19% of digital music sites.

 

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امثال و حکم ; ۱٢:٠۱ ‎ب.ظ ; دوشنبه ٤ آذر ۱۳۸٧

Michelle Obama Biography

Lawyer, Chicago city administrator, community outreach worker and wife of President Elect Barack Obama. Michelle LaVaughn Robinson Obama was born January 17, 1964, in Chicago, Illinois.

Michelle was raised on Chicago's South Side in a one-bedroom apartment. Her father, Frasier Robinson, was a city pump operator and a Democratic precinct captain. Her mother, Marian, was a Spiegel's secretary who later stayed home to raise Michelle and her older brother, Craig. The family has been described as a close-knit one that shared family meals, read and played games together.

Craig and Michelle, 16 months apart in age, were often mistaken for twins. The siblings also shared close quarters – they slept in the living room with a makeshift sheet serving as their room divider. Both children were raised with an emphasis on education. The brother and sister learned to read at home by the age of four, and both skipped second grade.

By sixth grade, Michelle was attending gifted classes, where she learned French and took accelerated courses. She then went on to attend the city's first magnet high school for gifted children where, among other activities, she served as the student government treasurer. "Without being immodest, we were always smart, we were always driven and we were always encouraged to do the best you can do, not just what's necessary," her brother Craig, has said. "And when it came to going to schools, we all wanted to go to the best schools we could."

Michelle graduated in 1981 from Whitney M. Young Magnet High School in Chicago's West Loop as class salutatorian. After high school, she followed her brother to Princeton University, graduating cum laude in 1985 with a B.A. in Sociology. She went on to earn a J.D. from Harvard Law School in 1988, where she took part in demonstrations demanding more minority students and professors.

Following law school, Michelle worked as an associate in the Chicago branch of the law firm Sidley Austin in the area of marketing and intellectual property. There in 1989, she met her future husband, Barack Obama, a summer intern to whom she was assigned as an adviser. "I went to Harvard and he went to Harvard, and the firm thought, 'Oh, we'll hook these two people up,'" Michelle said. "So, you know, there was a little intrigue, but I must say after about a month, Barack...asked me out, and I thought no way. This is completely tacky." Initially, she refused to date Obama, believing that their work relationship would make the romance improper. Eventually she relented, and the couple soon fell in love.

After two years of dating, Barack proposed. "We were at a restaurant having dinner to celebrate the fact that he had finished the bar," Michelle remembers. "Then the waiter came over with the dessert and a tray. And there was the ring. And I was completely shocked." The couple married at Trinity United Church of Christ on October 18, 1992.

Michelle soon left her job to launch a career in public service, serving as an assistant to Mayor Daley and then as the assistant commissioner of planning and development for the City of Chicago.

In 1993, she became Executive Director for the Chicago office of Public Allies, a non-profit leadership-training program that helped young adults develop skills for future careers in the public sector.

Michelle joined the University of Chicago in 1996 as associate dean of student services, developing the University's first community service program. She then worked for the University of Chicago Hospitals beginning in 2002, as executive director of community relations and external affairs.

In May 2005, she was appointed vice president of community relations and external affairs at the University of Chicago Medical Center, where she continues to work part-time. She also manages the business diversity program and sits on six boards, including the prestigious Chicago Council on Global Affairs and the University of Chicago Laboratory Schools.

Michelle Obama first caught the eye of a national audience at her husband's side when he delivered a high-profile speech at the Democratic National Convention in 2004. Barack Obama was elected to the U.S. Senate from Illinois that November.

In 2007, she scaled back her own professional work to attend to family and campaign obligations during Barack's run for the Democratic presidential nomination. Michelle says she's made a "commitment to be away overnight only once a week – to campaign only two days a week and be home by the end of the second day" for their two daughters, Malia (born 1999) and Natasha (2001). It has been reported that the Obama family has no nanny, and that the children are left with their grandmother, Marian, while their parents campaign. "I've never participated at this level in any of his campaigns," Michelle says. "I have usually chosen to just appear when necessary."

Since her husband's political role pushed the Obama family into the spotlight, Michelle has been publicly recognized for her steely, no-nonsense campaign style as well as her sense of fashion. In May of 2006, Michelle was featured in Essence magazine as one of "25 of the World's Most Inspiring Women." Then in September 2007, Michelle was listed in 02138 magazine as number 58 in "The Harvard 100," a list of the most influential alumni for the year. She has also made the Vanity Fair best-dressed list two years in a row, as well as People Magazine's 2008 best-dressed list.

Michelle Obama will be the 44th First Lady of the United States

 

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امثال و حکم ; ۱۱:٥٦ ‎ق.ظ ; دوشنبه ٤ آذر ۱۳۸٧

Barack Hussein Obama Biography

Biography: Barack Hussein Obama was born Aug. 4, 1961, in Honolulu, Hawaii. His father, Barack Obama, Sr., was born of Luo ethnicity in Nyanza Province, Kenya. He grew up herding goats with his own father, who was a domestic servant to the British. Although reared among Muslims, Obama, Sr., became an atheist at some point.

Obama’s mother, Ann Dunham, grew up in Wichita, Kansas. Her father worked on oil rigs during the Depression. After the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor, he signed up for service in World War II and marched across Europe in Patton’s army. Dunham’s mother went to work on a bomber assembly line. After the war, they studied on the G. I. Bill, bought a house through the Federal Housing Program, and moved to Hawaii.

Meantime, Barack’s father had won a scholarship that allowed him to leave Kenya pursue his dreams in Hawaii. At the time of his birth, Obama’s parents were students at the East–West Center of the University of Hawaii at Manoa.

Obama’s parents separated when he was two years old and later divorced. Obama’s father went to Harvard to pursue Ph. D. studies and then returned to Kenya.

His mother married Lolo Soetoro, another East–West Center student from Indonesia. In 1967, the family moved to Jakarta, where Obama’s half-sister Maya Soetoro–Ng was born. Obama attended schools in Jakarta, where classes were taught in the Indonesian language.

Four years later when Barack (commonly known throughout his early years as "Barry") was ten, he returned to Hawaii to live with